Analysis of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in air samples from Northwest Europe

Air samples were collected from 4 field sites in Europe: 2 sites from the UK, Hazelrigg (semi-rural) and Manchester (urban); 1 site from Ireland: Mace Head (rural); and 1 site from Norway: Kjeller (rural). Additionally, air samples were taken from indoor locations in Troms?, Norway. Air samples were collected using high-volume air samplers employing sampling modules containing glass-fibre filters (GFFs, particle phase), and glass columns with a polyurethane foam (PUF)-XAD-2-PUF sandwich (gaseous phase). Typical outdoor air volumes required for the determination of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) ranged from 500-1800 m3. GFFs and PUF-XAD columns were analysed separately to obtain information on phase partitioning. All air samples were analysed for volatile, neutral PFAS, with selected GFF samples halved for analysis of both neutral and airborne particle-bound ionic PFAS. Volatile PFAS were extracted from air samples by cold-column immersion with ethyl acetate, and were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in the positive chemical ionisation mode (GC-PCI-MS). Ionic PFAS were extracted from GFFs by sonication in methanol, and were analysed by liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) using electrospray ionisation in the negative ion mode (ESI-). Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) was often the predominant analyte found in the particulate phase at concentrations ranging from 1-818 pg m(-3), and 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (FTOH) and 6:2 FTOH were the prevailing analytes found in the gas phase, at 5-243 pg m(-3) and 5-189 pg m(-3), respectively. These three PFAS were ubiquitous in air samples. Many other PFAS, both neutral and ionic, were also present, and levels of individual analytes were in the 1-125 pg m(-3) range. Levels of some PFAS exceeded those of traditional persistent organic pollutants (POPs). In this study, the presence of 12:2 FTOH and fluorotelomer olefins (FTolefins), and ionic PFAS other than perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and PFOA, are reported in air samples for the first time. Concentrations of neutral PFAS were several orders of magnitude higher in indoor air than outdoor air, making homes a likely important diffuse source of PFAS to the atmosphere. Our repeated findings of non-volatile ionic PFAS in air samples raises the possibility that they might directly undergo significant atmospheric transport on particles away from source regions, and more atmospheric measurements of ionic PFAS are strongly recommended.     

Improving soil investigations at brownfield sites using a flexible work strategy and screening methods inspired by the US Environmental Protection Agency's triad approach

Investigations of polluted brownfield sites and sample analyses are expensive, and the resulting data are often of poor quality. Efforts are needed, therefore, to improve the methods used in investigations of brownfield sites to both reduce costs and improve the quality of the results. One approach that could be useful for both of these purposes is the triad strategy, developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency, in which managing uncertainty is a central feature. In the investigations reported here, a field study was conducted to identify possible ways in which uncertainties could be managed in practice. One example considered involves optimizing the uncertainty by adjusting the sizes of samples and the efforts expended in analytical work according to the specific aims of the project. In addition, the potential utility of several toxicity assessment methods for screening sites was evaluated. As well as presenting the results of these assessments, in this contribution we discuss ways in which a flexible work strategy and screening methods inspired of the triad philosophy could be incorporated into the Swedish approach to remediate brownfield sites. A tiered approach taking advantage of field and screening methods is proposed to assess brownfield sites focusing on the response and acceptable uncertainty that are required for the task.     

Fish abundances in shoreline habitats and submerged aquatic vegetation in a tidal freshwater embayment of the Potomac River

Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) is considered an important habitat for juvenile and small forage fish species, but many long-term recruitment surveys do not effectively monitor fish communities in SAV. To better understand the impact of recent large increases of SAV on the fish community in tidal freshwater reaches of the Potomac River, we compared traditional seine sampling from shore with drop ring sampling of SAV beds (primarily Hydrilla) in a shallow water (depths, <1.5 m) embayment, Gunston Cove. To accomplish this, we developed species-specific catch efficiency values for the seine gear and calculated area-based density in both shoreline and SAV habitats in late summer of three different years (2007, 2008, and 2009). For the dominant species (Fundulus diaphanus, Lepomis macrochirus, Etheostoma olmstedi, Morone americana, Lepomis gibbosus, and Fundulus heteroclitus), density was nearly always higher in SAV, but overall, species richness was highest in shoreline habitats sampled with seines. Although historical monitoring of fish in Gunston Cove (and throughout Chesapeake Bay) is based upon seine sampling (and trawl sampling in deeper areas), the high densities of fish and larger areal extent of SAV indicated that complementary sampling of SAV habitats would produce more accurate trends in abundances of common species. Because drop ring samples cover much less area than seines and may miss rare species, a combination of methods that includes seine sampling is needed for biodiversity assessment. The resurgence of SAV in tidal freshwater signifies improving water quality, and methods we evaluated here support improved inferences about population trends and fish community structure as indicators of ecosystem condition.     

Monitoring compared with paleolimnology: implications for the definition of reference condition in limed lakes in Sweden

Surface water acidification was identified as a major environmental problem in the 1960s. Consequently, a liming program was launched in Sweden in the 1970s. The primary purpose of liming is to restore conditions that existed prior to acidification. To reach this goal, as well as achieve 'good status' (i.e. low levels of distortion resulting from human activity) in European freshwaters until 2016 under the European Union Water Framework Directive, lake data are required to define reference conditions. Here, we compare data from chemical/biological monitoring of 12 limed lakes with results of paleolimnological investigations, to address questions of reference conditions, acidification, and restoration by liming. Using diatom-based lake-water pH inferences, we found clear evidence of acidification in only five of the 12 lakes, which had all originally been classified as acidified according to monitoring data. After liming, measured and diatom-inferred pH agree well in seven lakes. The sediment record of three of the five remaining lakes gave ambiguous results, presumably due to sediment mixing or low sediment accumulation rates. It is difficult to determine whether liming restored the lakes to a good status, especially as some of the lakes were not acidified during the twentieth century. In addition to acid deposition, other factors, such as natural lake and catchment ontogeny or human impact through agricultural activity, influence lake acidity. This study shows that monitoring series are usually too short to define reference conditions for lakes, and that paleolimnological studies are useful to set appropriate goals for restoration and for evaluation of counter measures.     

Temporal trend of mercury in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from Svalbard using teeth as a biomonitoring tissue

We examined the use of mercury (Hg) and nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes in teeth of polar bear (Ursus maritimus) from Svalbard as biotracers of temporal changes in Hg pollution exposure between 1964 and 2003. Teeth were regarded as a good matrix of the Hg exposure, and in total 87 teeth of polar bears were analysed. Dental Hg levels ranged from 0.6 to 72.3 ng g(-1) dry weight and increased with age during the first 10 years of life. A decreasing time trend in Hg concentrations was observed over the recent four decades while no temporal changes were found in the stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ(15)N) and carbon (δ(13)C). This suggests that the decrease of Hg concentrations over time was more likely due to a lower environmental Hg exposure in this region rather than a shift in the feeding habits of Svalbard polar bears.     

Spatiotemporal variability in surface energy balance across tundra,snow and ice in Greenland

The surface energy balance (SEB) is essential for understanding the coupled cryosphere–atmosphere system in the Arctic. In this study, we investigate the spatiotemporal variability in SEB across tundra, snow and ice. During the snow-free period, the main energy sink for ice sites is surface melt. For tundra, energy is used for sensible and latent heat flux and soil heat flux leading to permafrost thaw. Longer snow-free period increases melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet and glaciers and may promote tundra permafrost thaw. During winter, clouds have a warming effect across surface types whereas during summer clouds have a cooling effect over tundra and a warming effect over ice, reflecting the spatial variation in albedo. The complex interactions between factors affecting SEB across surface types remain a challenge for understanding current and future conditions. Extended monitoring activities coupled with modelling efforts are essential for assessing the impact of warming in the Arctic.     

The adoption of green energy technologies: The role of policies in Austria,Germany, and Switzerland

We contribute to the existing research about policy-induced technology adoption in several ways. First, we suggest a new survey design to measure the energy-related policy environment. Second, we simultaneously estimate the policy effects for the adoption propensity and the adoption intensity simultaneously and, third, we compare the policy effects in the three countries, Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Based on a representative sample of firms for all three countries we find that policies essentially promote the adoption of technologies and they are practically ineffective for the intensity, which poses a great challenge to future policy designs. Voluntary agreements or demand-related factors are among the most important drivers for the adoption propensity of green energy technologies. Given the current institutional framework in the surveyed countries, subsidies are more effective in Austria, taxes are more effective in Germany, and demand-related factors are relatively more effective in Switzerland.     

Biochar and hydrochar effects on greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane) fluxes from soils

With a growing world population and global warming, we are challenged to increase food production while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We studied the effects of biochar (BC) and hydrochar (HC) produced via pyrolysis or hydrothermal carbonization, respectively, on GHG fluxes in three laboratory incubation studies. In the first experiment, ryegrass was grown in sandy loam mixed with equal amounts of a nitrogen-rich peanut hull BC, compost, BC+compost, double compost, or no addition (control); wetting-drying cycles and N fertilization were applied. Biochar with or without compost significantly reduced NO emissions and did not change the CH uptake, whereas ryegrass yield was significantly increased. In the second experiment, 0% (control) or 8% (w/w) of BC (peanut hull, maize, wood chip, or charcoal) or 8% HC (beet chips or bark) was mixed into a soil and incubated at 65% water-holding capacity (WHC) for 140 d. Treatments included simulated plowing and N fertilization. All BCs reduced NO emissions by ～60%. Hydrochars reduced NO emissions only initially but significantly increased them after N fertilization to 302% (HC-beet) and 155% (HC-bark) of the control emissions, respectively. Large HC-associated CO emissions suggested that microbial activity was stimulated and that HC was less stable than BC. In the third experiment, nutrient-rich peanut hull BC addition and incubation over 1.5 yr at high WHCs did not promote NO emissions. However, NO emissions were significantly increased with BC after NHNO addition. In conclusion, BC reduced NO emissions and improved the GHG-to-yield ratio under field-relevant conditions. However, the risk of increased NO emissions with HC addition must be carefully evaluated.