The adequacy of training for EIA in the United States of America

The well-established environmental impact assessment requirements in the United States have given rise to a number of training needs within federal and state agencies. Requirements for training vary for EIA project managers, technical specialists, senior managers and others involved in EIA. Information needs about EIA vary also, but include general awareness, procedural knowledge, substantive methodological knowledge and technical knowledge. While EIA training is provided in short courses, on the job, and in universities there remain deficiencies in the training of specialists, senior managers, and others. Proposals are made here to help overcome these. This paper examines the needs and provisions for training in environmental impact assessment (EIA) in the USA federal system and in the system created by the California Environmental Quality Act. The investigation is based on the very limited literature on training, on responses to letters, on the printed material requested from agencies and, most importantly, on the results of a series of interviews of personnel in various federal agencies at central and regional levels, in California, and elsewhere. A recent report by the Environmental Law Institute (1981) furnished invaluable background information on EIA training in the federal agencies. The list of liaison officers printed by the Council on Environmental Quality (1982a) was used to request interviews and information.     

Ecotoxicological implications of aquatic disposal of coal combustion residues in the United States: a review

We provide an overview of research related to environmental effects of disposal of coal combustion residues (CCR) in sites in the United States. Our focus is on aspects of CCR that have the potential to negatively influence aquatic organisms and thehealth of aquatic ecosystems. We identify major issues of concern, as well as areas in need of further investigation.Intentional or accidental release of CCR into aquatic systemshas generally been associated with deleterious environmental effects. A large number of metals and trace elements are presentin CCR, some of which are rapidly accumulated to high concentrations by aquatic organisms. Moreover, a variety of biological responses have been observed in organisms following exposure to and accumulation of CCR-related contaminants. In some vertebrates and invertebrates, CCR exposure has led to numerous histopathological, behavioral, and physiological (reproductive, energetic, and endocrinological) effects. Fish kills and extirpation of some fish species have been associatedwith CCR release, as have indirect effects on survival and growth of aquatic animals mediated by changes in resource abundance or quality. Recovery of CCR-impacted sites can be extremely slow due to continued cycling of contaminants withinthe system, even in sites that only received CCR effluents forshort periods of time. The literature synthesis reveals important considerations for future investigations of CCR-impacted sites. Many studies have examined biological responses to CCR with respect to Se concentrations and accumulation because of teratogenic andreproductively toxic effects known to be associated with thiselement. However, the complex mixture of metals and traceelements characteristic of CCR suggests that biologicalassessments of many CCR-contaminated habitats should examine avariety of inorganic compounds in sediments, water, and tissuesbefore causation can be linked to individual CCR components. Most evaluations of effects of CCR in aquatic environments havefocused on lentic systems and the populations of animalsoccupying them. Much less is known about CCR effects in loticsystems, in which the contaminants may be transported downstream,diluted or concentrated in downstream areas, and accumulated bymore transient species. Although some research has examinedaccumulation and effects of contaminants on terrestrial and avianspecies that visit CCR-impacted aquatic sites, more extensiveresearch is also needed in this area. Effects in terrestrial orsemiaquatic species range from accumulation and maternal transferof elements to complete recruitment failure, suggesting that CCReffects need to be examined both within and outside of theaquatic habitats into which CCR is released. Requiring specialattention are waterfowl and amphibians that use CCR-contaminatedsites during specific seasons or life stages and are highlydependent on aquatic habitat quality during those periods.Whether accidentally discharged into natural aquatic systems or present in impoundments that attract wildlife, CCR appears topresent significant risks to aquatic and semiaquatic organisms. Effects may be as subtle as changes in physiology or as drasticas extirpation of entire populations. When examined as a whole,research on responses of aquatic organisms to CCR suggests thatreducing the use of disposal methods that include an aquaticslurry phase may alleviate some environmental risks associatedwith the waste products.     

Impervious Surface Area as a Predictor of the Effects of Urbanization on Stream Insect Communities in Maine, U.S.A.

The influence of urbanization on stream insect communities was determined by comparing physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of streams draining 20 catchments with varyinglevels of urban land-cover in Maine (U.S.A). Percent total impervious surface area (PTIA), which was used to quantify urbanland-use, ranged from 1–31% among the study catchments.Taxonomic richness of stream insect communities showed an abruptdecline as PTIA increased above 6%. Streams draining catchmentswith PTIA < 6% had the highest levels of both total insect and EPT (Ephemeroptera + Plecoptera + Trichoptera) taxonomic richness. These streams contained insect communities with a totalrichness averaging 33 taxa in fall and 31 taxa in spring; EPT richness ranged from an average of 15 taxa in fall and 13 taxa inspring. In contrast, none of the streams draining catchments with6–27% PTIA had a total richness > 18 taxa or an EPT richness> 6 taxa. Insect communities in streams with PTIA > 6% were characterized by the absence of pollution-intolerant taxa. The distribution of more pollution-tolerant taxa (e.g.Acerpenna (Ephemeroptera); Paracapnia, Allocapnia (Plecoptera); Optioservus, Stenelmis (Coleoptera); Hydropsyche, Cheumatopsyche (Trichoptera)), however, showed little relation to PTIA. In contrast to the apparent threshold relationship between PTIA and insect taxonomic richness, both habitat qualityand water quality tended to decline as linear functions of PTIA.Our results indicate that, in Maine, an abrupt change in stream insect community structure occurs at a PTIA above a threshold ofapproximately 6% of total catchment area. The measurement of PTIA may provide a valuable tool for predicting thresholds for adverse effects of urbanization on the health of headwater streams in Maine.     

对英国水獭(Lutra lutra)种群生长的长期监测

欧洲水獭自50年代来明显减少,正在从许多河流消失.本研究基于对英国西部3个自然建群的集水区和英国东部2个通过人工投放加速建群的集水区的长期监测(从1977年以来)结果.到2002年,在每条河流至少收集了16年的数据,在每条研究河上设置一系列研究点,记录水獭出现点的百分率、痕迹点的痕迹数,并通过结合以上2个参数计算年种群指数.在一条自然建群的西部河流,头5年水獭种群生长快速增长,接着生长缓慢.但在2个研究开始就已经有水獭的集水区,其生长比较稳定.东部河流水獭建群的速度缓慢,随时间有巨大的波动.年种群生长率约为1%～7%,在早期较高.对水獭的年度监测计划提出了建议.     

Liquid crystallinity of levan/water/starch solutions

Transmitted light measurements performed with a UV-visible spectrophotometer were used to characterize how starch affects the position of boundaries on the phase diagram for dilute aqueous solutions of levan (a branched polymer of fructose). Data were collected in the range 15 to 70°C; the minimum concentrations required for separation of a nematic phase and the minimum concentration required for a fully nematic solution were identified within this range. While hard interactions (repulsion between rod-like molecular segments) dictate the formation of a liquid crystalline phase at and above ambient temperature in the absence of starch, soft interactions become more significant as solutions are cooled toward ambient when starch is present. Small amounts of starch might be used as a filler to modify the mechanical properties (while retaining the process-related benefits) of levan films cast from liquid crystalline solution.     

Cross-taxonomic potential and spatial transferability of an umbrella species index

Validation that conservation of certain species effectively protects a high proportion of co-occurring species is rare. Our previous work has suggested that an umbrella index based on geographic distribution and life history characteristics would maximize the proportion of conspecifics protected per unit area conserved. Using bird and butterfly data from three mountain ranges in the Great Basin, we examined whether umbrella species also would confer protection to species in different taxonomic groups. Further, we addressed the spatial transferability of umbrella species by considering whether species identified as umbrellas in one mountain range would be effective umbrellas in other mountain ranges. Overall, equal proportions of species would be protected using either cross-taxonomic umbrella species or same-taxon umbrella species. Our data suggested that in a given mountain range, umbrella species identified using data from the same mountain range versus a different mountain range would be equally effective. The ability of one set of umbrella species to confer protection to co-occurring species, however, may vary among taxonomic groups and geographic regions.     

Large-Scale Effects of Timber Harvesting on Stream Systems in the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas, USA

Using Basin Area Stream Survey (BASS) data from the United States Forest Service, we evaluated how timber harvesting influenced patterns of variation in physical stream features and regional fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages. Data were collected for three years (1990–1992) from six hydrologically variable streams in the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas, USA that were paired by management regime within three drainage basins. Specifically, we used multivariate techniques to partition variability in assemblage structure (taxonomic and trophic) that could be explained by timber harvesting, drainage basin differences, year-to-year variability, and their shared variance components. Most of the variation in fish assemblages was explained by drainage basin differences, and both basin and year-of-sampling influenced macroinvertebrate assemblages. All three factors modeled, including interactions between drainage basins and timber harvesting, influenced variability in physical stream features. Interactions between timber harvesting and drainage basins indicated that differences in physical stream features were important in determining the effects of logging within a basin. The lack of a logging effect on the biota contradicts predictions for these small, hydrologically variable streams. We believe this pattern is related to the large scale of this study and the high levels of natural variability in the streams. Alternatively, there may be time-specific effects we were unable to detect with our sampling design and analyses.     

Complex co‐substrate addition increases initial petroleum degradation rates during land treatment by altering bacterial community physiology

A pilot‐scale land treatment unit (LTU) was constructed at the former Guadalupe oil production field with the purpose of investigating the effect of co‐substrate addition on the bacterial community and the resulting rate and extent of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) degradation. The TPH was a weathered mid‐cut distillate (C10‐C32) excavated from the subsurface and stockpiled before treatment. A control cell (Cell 1) in the LTU was amended with nitrogen and phosphorus while the experimental cell (Cell 2) was amended with additional complex co‐substrate—corn steep liquor. During the pilot LTU operation, measurements were taken of TPH, nutrients, moisture, aerobic heterotrophic bacteria (AHB), and diesel oxidizing bacteria (DOB). The bacterial community was also assayed using community‐level physiology profiles (CLPP) and 16S rDNA terminal restriction fragment (TRF) analysis. TPH degradation in both cells was characterized by a rapid phase of degradation that lasted for the first three weeks, followed by a slower degradation phase that continued through the remainder of the project. The initial rate of TPH‐degradation in Cell 1 (?0.021 day^?1) was slower than in Cell 2 (?0.035 day^?1). During the slower phase, degradation rates in both cells were similar (?0.0026 and ?0.0024 respectively). AHB and DOB counts were similar in both cells during the fast degradation phase. A second addition of co‐substrate to Cell 2 at the beginning of the slow degradation phase resulted in an increased AHB population that lasted for the remainder of the project but did not affect TPH degradation rates. CLPP data showed that co‐substrate addition altered the functional capacity of the bacterial community during both phases of the project. However, TRF data indicated that the phylogenetic composition of the community was not different in the two cells during the fast degradation phase. The bacterial phylogenetic structure in Cell 2 differed from Cell 1 after the second application of co‐substrate, during the slow degradation phase. Thus, co‐substrate addition appeared to enhance the functional capacity of the bacterial community during the fast degradation phase when the majority of TPH was bioavailable, resulting in increased degradation rates, but did not affect rates during the slow degradation phase when the remaining TPH may not have been bioavailable. These data show that co‐substrate addition might prove most useful for applications such as land farming where TPH is regularly applied to the same soil and initial degradation rates are more important to the project goals. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Relationships between psychological climate perceptions and work outcomes: a meta‐analytic review

In this study, meta‐analytic procedures were used to examine the relationships between individual‐level (psychological) climate perceptions and work outcomes such as employee attitudes, psychological well‐being, motivation, and performance. Our review of the literature generated 121 independent samples in which climate perceptions were measured and analyzed at the individual level. These studies document considerable confusion regarding the constructs of psychological climate, organizational climate, and organizational culture and reveal a need for researchers to use terminology that is consistent with their level of measurement, theory, and analysis. Our meta‐analytic findings indicate that psychological climate, operationalized as individuals' perceptions of their work environment, does have significant relationships with individuals' work attitudes, motivation, and performance. Structural equation modeling analyses of the meta‐analytic correlation matrix indicated that the relationships of psychological climate with employee motivation and performance are fully mediated by employees' work attitudes. We also found that the James and James ( 1989 ) PC_g model could be extended to predict the impact of work environment perceptions on employee attitudes, motivation, and performance. Despite the number of published individual‐level climate studies that we found, there is a need for more research using standardized measures so as to enable analyses of the organizational and contextual factors that might moderate the effects of psychological climate perceptions. Finally, we argue for a molar theory of psychological climate that is rooted in the psychological processes by which individuals make meaning or their work experiences. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A discursive review of the textual use of ‘trapped’ in environmental migration studies: The conceptual birth and troubled teenage years of trapped populations

First mooted in 2011, the concept of Trapped Populations referring to people unable to move from environmentally high-risk areas broadened the study of human responses to environmental change. While a seemingly straightforward concept, the underlying discourses around the reasons for being ‘trapped’, and the language describing the concept have profound influences on the way in which policy and practice approaches the needs of populations at risk from environmental stresses and shocks. In this article, we apply a Critical Discourse Analysis to the academic literature on the subject to reveal some of the assumptions implicit within discussing ‘trapped’ populations. The analysis reveals a dominant school of thought that assisted migration, relocation, and resettlement in the face of climate change are potentially effective adaptation strategies along a gradient of migrant agency and governance.