Direct radiative forcing of urban aerosols over Pretoria (25.75°S, 28.28°E) using AERONET Sunphotometer data: First scientific results and environmental impact

The present study uses the data collected from Cimel Sunphotometer of Aerosol Robotic Network（AERONET） for the period from January to December, 2012 over an urban site,Pretoria（PTR; 25.75°S, 28.28°E, 1449 m above sea level）, South Africa. We found that monthly mean aerosol optical depth（AOD, τa） exhibits two maxima that occurred in summer（February） and winter（August） having values of 0.36 ± 0.19 and 0.25 ± 0.14,respectively, high-to-moderate values in spring and thereafter, decreases from autumn with a minima in early winter（June） 0.12 ± 0.07. The Angstrom exponents（α440–870） likewise,have its peak in summer（January） 1.70 ± 0.21 and lowest in early winter（June） 1.38 ± 0.26,while the columnar water vapor（CWV） followed AOD pattern with high values（summer） at the beginning of the year（February, 2.10 ± 0.37 cm） and low values（winter） in the middle of the year（July, 0.66 ± 0.21 cm）. The volume size distribution（VSD） in the fine-mode is higher in the summer and spring seasons, whereas in the coarse mode the VSD is higher in the winter and lower in the summer due to the hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles.The single scattering albedo（SSA） ranged from 0.85 to 0.96 at 440 nm over PTR for the entire study period. The averaged aerosol radiative forcing（ARF） computed using SBDART model at the top of the atmosphere（TOA） was- 8.78 ± 3.1 W/m2, while at the surface it was- 25.69 ± 8.1 W/m2 leading to an atmospheric forcing of ＋ 16.91 ± 6.8 W/m2, indicating significant heating of the atmosphere with a mean of 0.47 K/day.     

Micro end mill tool temperature measurement and prediction

The objective of this work is to characterize the heat transfer in micro end mill tools during machining operations. This analysis will aid in the design of heat dissipation strategies that could potentially increase tool life and machining precision. Tool temperatures, above the unmachined workpiece surface, have been measured using an infrared camera during slot milling of aluminum (6061-T6) and steel (1018) with 300 μm-diameter two-flute tungsten carbide end mills. The measured temperatures compare favorably with temperature distributions predicted by a two-dimensional, transient, heat transfer model of the tool. The heat input is estimated by applying Loewen and Shaw’s heat partitioning analysis. Analysis of heat transfer in the tool found that 46 s into a cut conduction through the length of the tool, storage in the tool, and convection from the surface account for 41.5%, 45%, and 13.5% of the heat generated during machining. Thermal expansion and cooling strategies are discussed.