‘A system that works for the sea’? Exploring Stakeholder Engagement in Marine Spatial Planning

This paper aims to contribute to the current debate on Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) by exploring the issue of stakeholder engagement. MSP is an emergent policy field that is subject to an increasing body of research, yet the role, scope and nature of participatory engagement within the process remains a neglected topic. This paper briefly reviews the nature of the ‘marine problem’, to which MSP is seen to be the response and describes the emergence of MSP policy in the UK with specific emphasis on participatory aspects. Drawing on the experience of terrestrial planning it discusses the potential benefits of stakeholder engagement in MSP and highlights some of the key issues that need to be taken into account when shaping stakeholder input into the process. It then goes on to describe the findings from a series of interviews with key stakeholders in the Irish Sea Region, which suggest that we need to develop a more critical and deeper understanding of how various interests frame the ‘marine problem’, and how they see their role in shaping the form of the MSP process. This highlights the importance of encouraging stakeholder involvement in MSP, the need to develop a shared vision of a ‘sea interest’. Priorities are then set for research to support this important policy agenda.     

Analytical solution for estimating storage efficiency of geologic sequestration of CO2

During injection of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into deep saline aquifers, the available pore volume of the aquifer may be used inefficiently, thereby decreasing the effective capacity of the repository for CO₂ storage. Storage efficiency is the fraction of the available pore space that is utilized for CO₂ storage, or, in other words, it is the ratio between the volume of stored CO₂ and the maximum available pore volume. In this note, we derive and present simple analytical expressions for estimating CO₂ storage efficiency under the scenario of a constant-rate injection of CO₂ into a confined, homogeneous, isotropic, saline aquifer. The expressions for storage efficiency are derived from models developed previously by other researchers describing the shape of the CO₂-brine interface. The storage efficiency of CO₂ is found to depend on three dimensionless groups, namely: (1) the residual saturation of brine after displacement by CO₂; (2) the ratio of CO₂ mobility to brine mobility; (3) a dimensionless group (which we call a “gravity factor”) that quantifies the importance of CO₂ buoyancy relative to CO₂ injection rate. In the particular case of negligible residual brine saturation and negligible buoyancy effects, the storage efficiency is approximately equal to the ratio of the CO₂ viscosity to the brine viscosity. Storage efficiency decreases as the gravity factor increases, because the buoyancy of the CO₂ causes it to occupy a thin layer at the top of the confined formation, while leaving the lower part of the aquifer under-utilized. Estimates of storage efficiency from our simple analytical expressions are in reasonable agreement with values calculated from simulations performed with more complicated multi-phase-flow simulation software. Therefore, we suggest that the analytical expressions presented herein could be used as a simple and rapid tool to screen the technical or economic feasibility of a proposed CO₂ injection scenario.     

Characterization and identification of trends in average ambient ozone and fine particulate matter levels through trajectory cluster analysis in eastern Canada

In many locations in Eastern Canada, ambient levels of fine particulate matter (PM,25) and surface ozone (O3) depend on airflow direction and synoptic scale meteorological conditions. In this study, a cluster analysis was performed on 10 yr (1994-2003) of back-trajectory data for 11 locations in Eastern Canada, resulting in the identification of 10 unique back-trajectory clusters (or airflows) for each location. The airflows were then used to characterize and identify spatial and temporal trends in the daily maximum 8-hr average O3 (dmax 8-hr O3) and the daily average PM2.5 levels. Results showed that airflows from the southwest passing over Michigan and Southern Ontario were associated, on average, with the highest O3 levels at most locations in Eastern Canada. For PM2.5, the highest levels occurred with airflows from the Eastern Ohio River Valley. At major urban locations in Ontario and Quebec, the warm season mean (May to September) dmax 8-hr O3 and the annual mean PM2.5 were, on average, 12 parts per billion and 7.6 microg/m3 higher, respectively, than airflows from the north. Elevated levels of O3 and PM2.5 also occurred under light airflows, and, on average, the levels under light airflows were higher than their nonlight counterparts. At several locations in Canada, including Toronto, Montreal, Quebec City, and Kejimkujik, the annual warm season mean dmax 8-hr O3 experienced a statistically significant (95% confidence) increasing trend over the 10-yr period. When airflow direction was considered, a number of locations experienced statistically significant upward trends in O3 for airflow from the north and northwest. Several locations also showed significant upward trends associated with airflow from the southwest passing over Michigan and Southwestern Ontario. Although there are no statistically significant downward trends, airflows from the southwest have shown a reduction in O3 levels in Southwestern Ontario in more recent years.     

Contemporary estimates of atmospheric nitrogen deposition to the watersheds of New York State, USA

Atmospheric inputs of reactive nitrogen (N) to ecosystems are a particular concern in the northeastern USA, including New York State, where rates of atmospheric N deposition are among the highest in the nation. We calculate the seasonal and annual spatial variations of contemporary inorganic atmospheric N deposition loading to multi-scale watersheds across New York State using numerous monitoring datasets of precipitation and ambient atmospheric N concentrations. Our models build upon and refine previous efforts estimating the spatial distribution of N deposition. Estimates of total inorganic wet deposition (NH4-N + NO3-N) across New York ranged from 4.7 to 10.5 kg ha(-1) yr(-1) under contemporary conditions (averaged 2002-2004), and both seasonal and annual predicted rates of inorganic N deposition (NH4-N, NO3-N, and total) fit relatively well with that of observed measurements. Our results suggest that "hot spots" of N deposition are, for the most part, spatially distributed according to geographic positions (i.e., relative location from sources and the Great Lakes system) and elevation. We also detect seasonal variations in deposition, showing that total wet atmospheric inorganic N deposition inputs to watersheds (extracted from the four-digit HUC calculations) are highest during the spring (mean = 2.4 kg ha(-1), stddev = 0.29) and lowest during the winter months (mean = 1.4 kg ha(-1), stddev = 0.23). Results also suggest that wet NO3(-) consistently comprises a slightly higher proportion of wet N deposition than wet NH4+ throughout watersheds of New York, ranging from 2.5 to 6.1 kg NO3-N ha(-1) yr(-1) compared to NH4+, which ranges from 2.2 to 4.4 kg NH4-N ha(-1) yr(-1).     

Developing a saltmarsh monitoring methodology to meet multiple policy and management objectives in Scotland

To meet Scotland’s conservation and legislative requirements to monitor and set management objectives for saltmarsh habitat, a national survey was developed jointly funded by Scottish Natural Heritage and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. This national survey focussed on developing a fine scale vegetation map of all Scottish saltmarshes over 3 ha, which was digitised using GIS software. A condition monitoring protocol was also developed to assess the health of key ecological parameters of the saltmarsh system. A total of 7,704 ha of coastal habitat was surveyed as part of the project, which included 5,840 ha of saltmarsh vegetation and 1,864 ha of associated vegetation. The condition monitoring protocol results show that targets relating to the presence of built structures and transition integrity are not achieved more frequently than others. Targets for stock grazing intensity; the maintenance of saltmarsh extent; and poaching damage are also not achieved frequently. Further research is required to accurately reflect the condition of pioneer saltmarsh.     

Australian Greens party members and supporters: their profiles and activities

In an era of widespread party membership decline, there is debate over the utility, within the ‘European’ tradition, of conceptualising party membership as the locus of individual party engagement, and of maintaining membership and supportership as distinct categories in analysing party activism. This debate is particularly relevant to Green parties, which, through their particular social movement origins and emphasis on grass-roots democracy, bring into question the assumption that the activities and profile of members and supporters are functionally different. Using original data gathered from two surveys of Australian Greens party members and supporters undertaken in 2012 and 2013, the political activity, associational membership, ideological position, and demographic characteristics of these two groups are compared. While active party members are distinctive in their party-specific political activities and their ideological positioning, there is much less difference between the rest of the formal party membership and the party’s active supporter base.     

Copper toxicity to Lemna minor modelled using humic acid as a surrogate for the plant root

Humic acids are chemically analogous to plant root cell walls in that their surface sites are principally comprised of carboxylic and phenolic acids which bind both metals and protons. Based on this analogy, we developed a biotic-ligand type of model to predict Cu toxicity to Lemna minor, using particulate humic acid (HA(part)) of the Windermere Humic Aqueous Model (WHAM), and 7d static-renewal exposures with five surface waters and one nutrient media which varied in DOC (1-10 mg L(-1)), pH (6.9-8.7), and water hardness (35-236 mg equivalent CaCO(3)L(-1)). Although the range of waters tested resulted in a 36-fold variation in 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values, the calculated concentration of Cu bound to HA(part) using this framework was highly correlated with pooled percent net root elongation (%NRE) (R(2)=0.95). Ten and fifty percent IC values based on [Cu-HA(part)] were additionally within a factor of ±1.5 and ±1.4, respectively, inclusive of 95% confidence limits. This model construct, which defines the free metal ion and the first hydrolysis product (but not metal carbonate complexes) as being bioavailable, provides an alternative means of defining the binding surface in bioavailability models, whereby a heterogeneous mixture of ligands collectively influence root-metal sorption and toxicity.     

A Life-Cycle Comparison of Alternative Automobile Fuels

ABSTRACT

We examine the life cycles of gasoline, diesel, compressed natural gas (CNG), and ethanol (C₂H₅OH)-fueled internal combustion engine (ICE) automobiles. Port and direct injection and spark and compression ignition engines are examined. We investigate diesel fuel from both petroleum and biosources as well as C₂H₅OH from corn, herbaceous bio-mass, and woody biomass. The baseline vehicle is a gasoline-fueled 1998 Ford Taurus. We optimize the other fuel/powertrain combinations for each specific fuel as a part of making the vehicles comparable to the baseline in terms of range, emissions level, and vehicle lifetime. Life-cycle calculations are done using the economic input-output life-cycle analysis (EIO-LCA) software; fuel cycles and vehicle end-of-life stages are based on published model results.

We find that recent advances in gasoline vehicles, the low petroleum price, and the extensive gasoline infrastructure make it difficult for any alternative fuel to become commercially viable. The most attractive alternative fuel is compressed natural gas because it is less expensive than gasoline, has lower regulated pollutant and toxics emissions, produces less greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and is available in North America in large quantities. However, the bulk and weight of gas storage cylinders required for the vehicle to attain a range comparable to that of gasoline vehicles necessitates a redesign of the engine and chassis. Additional natural gas transportation and distribution infrastructure is required for large-scale use of natural gas for transportation. Diesel engines are extremely attractive in terms of energy efficiency, but expert judgment is divided on whether these engines will be able to meet strict emissions standards, even with reformulated fuel. The attractiveness of direct injection engines depends on their being able to meet strict emissions standards without losing their greater efficiency. Biofuels offer lower GHG emissions, are sustainable, and reduce the demand for imported fuels. Fuels from food sources, such as biodiesel from soybeans and C₂H₅OH from corn, can be attractive only if the co-products are in high demand and if the fuel production does not diminish the food supply. C₂H₅OH from herbaceous or woody biomass could replace the gasoline burned in the light-duty fleet while supplying electricity as a co-product. While it costs more than gasoline, bioethanol would be attractive if the price of gasoline doubled, if significant reductions in GHG emissions were required, or if fuel economy regulations for gasoline vehicles were tightened.     

Secondhand smoke exposure is associated with smoke-free laws but not urban/rural status

The objective was to determine secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure with and without smoke-free laws in urban and rural communities. The research hypothesis was that SHS exposure in public places could be improved by smoke-free law regardless of urban and rural status. Indoor air quality in hospitality venues was assessed in 53 communities (16 urban and 37 rural) before smoke-free laws; 12 communities passed smoke-free laws during the study period. Real-time measurements of particulate matter with 2.5 µm aerodynamic diameter or smaller (PM_2.5) were taken 657 times from 586 distinct venues; about 71 venues had both pre- and post-law measurements. Predictors of log-transformed PM_2.5 level were determined using multilevel modeling. With covariates of county-level percent minority population, percent with at least high school education, adult smoking rate, and venue-level smoker density, indoor air quality was associated with smoke-free policy status and venue type and their interaction. The geometric means for restaurants, bars, and other public places in communities without smoke-free policies were 22, 63, and 25 times higher than in those with smoke-free laws, respectively. Indoor air quality was not associated with urban status of venue, and none of the interactions involving urban status were significant. SHS exposure in public places did not differ by urban/rural status. Indoor air quality was associated with smoke-free law status and venue type.

Implications:?This study analyzed 657 measurements of indoor PM_2.5 level in 53 communities in Kentucky, USA. Although indoor air quality in public places was associated with smoke-free policy status and venue type, it did not differ by urban and rural status. The finding supports the idea that population in rural communities can be protected with smoke-free policy. Therefore, it is critical to implement smoke-free policy in rural communities as well as urban areas.     

Qualitative analysis of volatile organic compounds on biochar

Qualitative identification of sorbed volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on biochar was conducted by headspace thermal desorption coupled to capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometry. VOCs may have a mechanistic role influencing plant and microbial responses to biochar amendments, since VOCs can directly inhibit/stimulate microbial and plant processes. Over 70 biochars encompassing a variety of parent feedstocks and manufacturing processes were evaluated and were observed to possess diverse sorbed VOC composition. There were over 140 individual chemical compounds thermally desorbed from some biochars, with hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) and fast pyrolysis biochars typically possessing the greatest number of sorbed volatiles. In contrast, gasification, thermal or chemical processed biochars, soil kiln mound, and open pit biochars possessed low to non-detectable levels of VOCs. Slow pyrolysis biochars were highly variable in terms of their sorbed VOC content. There were no clear feedstock dependencies to the sorbed VOC composition, suggesting a stronger linkage with biochar production conditions coupled to post-production handling and processing. Lower pyrolytic temperatures (?350 °C) produced biochars with sorbed VOCs consisting of short carbon chain aldehydes, furans and ketones; elevated temperature biochars (>350 °C) typically were dominated by sorbed aromatic compounds and longer carbon chain hydrocarbons. The presence of oxygen during pyrolysis also reduced sorbed VOCs. These compositional results suggest that sorbed VOCs are highly variable and that their chemical dissimilarity could play a role in the wide variety of plant and soil microbial responses to biochar soil amendment noted in the literature. This variability in VOC composition may argue for VOC characterization before land application to predict possible agroecosystem effects.