Occurrence and seasonal variation of bacterial indicators of faecal pollution along Thoothukudi Coast, Tamil Nadu

Theprevalence and seasonal variation of bacterial indicators of faecal pollution such as total coliform bacteria, faecal coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli and faecal streptococci were investigated in samples of water and beach sand from the four fish landing centres of Thoothukudi. Further the samples were screened for Salmonella to study the reliability of faecal indicator bacteria as an index of human pathogenic bacteria. Total coliform bacteria, faecal coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli were isolated from all four landing centres from undetectable to the maximum detectable level of over Most Probable Number 140 throughout the year with no obvious seasonal variation. Faecal streptococci were also detected in most samples. There was no discernable relationship between faecal indicators and physical parameters. The relationship between faecal indicators and Salmonella was not significant (p > 0.05). The results showed that the coastal waters along Thoothukudi is polluted and presents a potential risk to public for recreational and fishing activities.     

Biozide in Gebäudefassaden – ökotoxikologische Effekte, Auswaschung und Belastungsabschätzung für Gewässer

Background, aim and scope Sources of organic micropollutants occuring in surface waters are often unknown. Regarding environmental risk assessments for surface waters, construction materials have as till now, not been given much consideration, although biocides used as preservatives are known to reach urban storm water runoff. The study focused on biocides for facades coatings and aimed (1) to determine ecotoxicological effect values, (2) to quantify the leaching behaviour and (3) to assess the environmental risk for surface waters using a dynamic transport model. Materials and methods Eight biocides used in resin based facade coatings were investigated. Some biocides are substances known as pesticides for agricultural purposes like diuron, carbendazim and terbutryn. Ecotoxicological effect values for aquatic organisms were determined for every biocide. Leaching of four biocides from a render under UV-irradiation has been investigated in the laboratory including the influence of varying temperatures. Using 80 irrigation intervals over 28 days, facade runoff was sampled and followed by biocide chemical analysis. The total losses were calculated based on the concentration patterns. These data were used for modelling the transport of cybutryn from facades to surface waters. Biocide specific effect values and leaching characteristics have been taken into consideration. Results Acute and chronic effect values as well as predicted no effect concentrations for the investigated biocides indicate their high potential to affect aquatic organisms. The leaching of four biocides (diuron, terbutryn, cybutryn, carbendazim) from the facade render under the experimental conditions delivers high concentrations in the beginning followed by an exponential decrease. Rising temperature increased the concentration of biocides in the runoff. The total losses were between 7?% and 29?% depending on the substances. More than half of the losses occur in the runoff within the first 15 min of runoff from a 60 min irrigation cycle. The modelling result for cybutryn underlines its high environmental risk for small surface waters. Discussion The leaching of the biocides, their potential ecotoxic effects and persistence show clearly that the environmental risk for surface waters and soils seems to be high for certain biocides; whereas for others the risk seems to be significantly lower. With respect water quality criteria, polluted facades runoff has to be diluted before runoff can enter the discharge. Diuron and carbendazim are however also used as pesticides and preservatives for other materials and cybutryn is also used as an antifouling agent. All pathways have to be evaluated in order to identify relevant sources and to act more efficiently with respect to water and soil protection. Conclusions Concentrations with high environmental risk are expected at new facades, especially at facades with thermal insulation. With the given low predicted no effect concentrations in a range of a few ng/L and large amounts of biocides applied in paints and renders, the environmental risk for common biocides used in facade coatings has to be investigated in laboratory and field scale. It seems plausible that source control measures as the most efficient and sustainable precautionary principle need to be evaluated. Recommendations and perspectives Biocides and additives applied in construction materials have to be taken into consideration as relevant sources when evaluating the quality of storm water runoff, discharge into urban areas and the impact to soil and surface waters. A sustainable construction material management and storm water management are required. It is expected that ongoing laboratory and field studies with exterior paints, renders and flat sheets for waterproofing containing biocides and additives will give further insight into their environmental impact.     

Abschätzung der Einträge von polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen in deutsche Gewässer

Background, aim, and scope Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) result from incomplete combustion of almost every organic materials, e.?g. due to forest fires, residential heating, combustion engines, grilling, or smoking. PAH are predominantly distributed over the air-path. Their usage in products (e.?g. moth-balls) has been limited strictly or completely forbidden in the past. In the context of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), the single substances anthracene, fluoranthene and naphthalene, as well as PAHs as group of substances, are listed as “priority” substances. Background of this work is a first compilation of sources of PAH emissions, and in this context, the collection of all relevant data and information to calculate the total emissions into surface waters in Germany. Materials and methods Within the scope of diverse research projects, funded by the German Environmental Agency, the available data material concerning PAH input in surface waters has been analyzed by the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research. On the basis of the collected data, a first evaluation of relevance of the different sources has been conducted using the model MONERIS. Results As a result of the atmospheric deposition, PAHs enter, to a large extent, surface waters directly or indirectly through surface runoff (e.?g. urban areas, wastewater treatment plants, erosion). Discussion Although there is still additional research need for some of the covered PAH sources, a noticeable distribution pattern of relevance emerges. Conclusions The scenarios, based on the currently known sources, show that the implementation or the neglect of emission reduction measures in the field of diffuse air-borne PAHs are crucial for the further development of the deposition of PAHs in surface waters. More far-reaching studies are necessary, e.?g. concerning emissions from inland navigation/motor boats, the inhomogeneous source “products”, or the path “erosion”. Recommendations and perspectives According to the EU-WFD, all depositions, emissions and losses of “priority hazardous” classified substances, such as the group of PAHs, have to be stopped or gradually finished in the long term. Until the year 2015, environmental quality standards (EQS) have to be met for all “priority substances”. Presently, the EQS often are not completely fulfilled for many substances of the PAH group, including benzo(a)pyrene. Reduction measures are necessary within diverse areas, especially concerning diffuse atmospheric emissions (e.?g. “residential heating”).     

Eine Weight-of-Evidence-Studie zur Bewertung der Sedimentbelastung und des Fischrückgangs in der Oberen Donau

Background and aim Despite intensive and continuous stocking and improvement of water quality since the 1970s, fish populations, especially those of the grayling (Thymallus thymallus), have declined over the last two decades in the upper Danube River (Germany). In order to assess 1) possible links between molecular/biochemical responses and ecologically relevant effects, and 2) if ecotoxicological effects might be related to the decline in fish catches in the upper Danube river, sediment samples and fish were collected at different locations and analyzed using a weight-of-evidence (WOE) approach with several lines of evidence. The objective of the presentation is to introduce the conceptual framework and to review results of the ongoing study. As previously addressed by Chapman and Hollert (2006) a variety of lines of evidence can be used in WOE studies. Briefly, 1) a comprehensive battery of acute and mechanism-specific bioassays was used to characterize the ecotoxicological hazard potential. 2) Histopathological investigations and the micronucleus assay with erythrocytes were applied, analyzing in situ parameters. 3) Diversity and abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates and fish as well as 4) persistent organic pollutants, endocrine disrupting substances, limnochemical parameters and the concentration of heavy metals were recorded. To identify organic contaminants a spotential causes of sediment toxicity assays, 5) effect directed analysis was applied.     

Controlling mechanisms of aluminium in soil solution--an evaluation of 180 podzolic forest soils.

To monitor the level of soil acidification in the county of V?rmland in the middle west of Sweden 180 podzolic forest soils were investigated. Soil solutions from four horizons were obtained by centrifugation and the soil was sampled for a determination of the exchangeable pool by extraction. The concentrations of inorganic Al and its fraction of the total Al in solution were greater in the south of the county (up to 50%). The factors influencing the total Al and free inorganic Al3+ in the soil solutions were evaluated. Saturation indices (SI) for five different mineral phases were calculated but none implied equilibrium conditions. The relationships between pAl3+ and pH (in the pH range 4-6.2) gave slopes of about 1, which indicated that ion exchange/complexation reactions may be important for determining the Al3+ concentration in the B and C horizons. In the E horizon solutions complexation with soluble organic acids seemed to be the major factor which influenced the Al3+ activity. The influence of organic matter on Al solubility was supported by partial least square (PLS) regressions.     

Effect of Pretreatment with UV Radiation on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Photocured Jute Yarn with 1,6-Hexanediol Diacrylate (HDDA)

Jute yarns were grafted with a single impregnating monomer 1,6-hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA) in order to improve the physicomechanical properties. Jute yarns soaked for different soaking times (3, 5, 10, and 30 minutes) in HDDA+MeOH solutions at different proportions (1–10% HDDA in MeOH [v/v] along with photoinitiator Darocur-1664 [3%]) were cured under UV lamp at different UV radiation intensities (two, four, six, and eight passes). Concentration of monomer, soaking time, and intensity of UV radiation were optimized with extent of mechanical properties such as tensile strength, elongation at break, and modulus. Enhanced tensile strength (67%), modulus (108%), and polymer loading (11%) were achieved with 5% HDDA concentration, 5-minute soaking time, fourth pass of UV radiation. To further improve the mechanical properties, the jute yarns were pretreated with UV radiation (5, 10, 15, 30, and 50 passes) and treated with optimized monomer concentration (5%). UV-pretreated samples showed the enhanced properties. The tensile strength and modulus increase up to 84% and 132%, respectively, than that of virgin jute yarn. An experiment involving water absorption capacity shows that water uptake by treated samples was much lower than that of the untreated samples. During the weathering test, treated yarns exhibited less loss of mechanical properties than untreated yarns.     

Bioabsorbable Soy Protein Plastic Composites: Effect of Polyphosphate Fillers on Biodegradability

The use of biodegradable polymers made from renewable agricultural products such as soy protein isolate has been limited by the tendency of these materials to absorb moisture. A straightforward approach for controlling the inherent water absorbency of the biodegradable polymers involves blending special bioabsorbable polyphosphate fillers, biodegradable soy protein isolate, plasticizer, and adhesion promoter in a high-shear mixer followed by compression molding. The procedure yields a relatively water-resistant, biodegradable soy protein polymer composite, as previously reported. The aim of the present study is to determine the biodegradability of the new polyphosphate filler/soy protein plastic composites by monitoring the carbon dioxide released over a period of 120 days. The results suggest that the composites biodegrade satisfactorily, with the fillers having no significant effect on the depolymerization and mineralization of the soy protein plastic, processes that would otherwise result in nonbiodegradable composites. Further, the results indicate that the biodegradation and useful service life of these biocomposites may be controlled by changing the filler concentration, making the biocomposites useful in applications in which the control of water resistance and biodegradation is critical.     

Fluxes of NO3-, NH4+, NO,NO2, and N2O in an Old Danish Beech Forest

The fluxes of the major nitrogen compounds havebeen investigated in many ecosystem studies over the world.However, only in few studies has attention been drawn to theimportance of the fluxes of minor gaseous nitrogen compoundsto complete the nitrogen cycle. In Denmark a detailed study onthe nitrogen cycle in an old beech forest has been implementedin 1997 at Gyrstinge near Sorø, Zealand. The study includesthe fluxes of the gases NO, N₂O and water mediatedtransport of NO₃ ^- and NH₄ ⁺. Measurementsof the fluxes of the gaseous compounds are performed withmicro-meteorological methods (eddy-correlation and gradient)and with chambers. Water mediated fluxes encompass rain,throughfall, stem-flow and leaching from the root zone. Thehydrological model is verified by TDR measurements. The findings show that the total water mediated N input tothe forest floor with throughfall and stemflow was 25.6 kg Nha^-1 yr ^-1, and open field wet deposition withprecipitation was 19.0 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1. The internalcycling of N in the ecosystem measured as turnover oflitterfall and plant uptake was 100 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1and 14 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1, respectively. The fluxes ofthe gaseous N compounds NO and N₂O were of minorimportance for the total N turnover in the forest, NO_xemission being <1 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1 and N₂Oemission from the soil being 0.5 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1 withno significant difference between wet and dry soils.Concentrations of NO₃ ^- and NH₄ ⁺ in thesoil solution beneath the rooting zone are very small andconsequently the N leaching is almost negligible. It isconcluded that the nitrogen mass balance of this old beechforest ecosystem mainly is controlled by the input by dry andwet deposition and a large internal N cycle with a fast litterturnover. The nitrogen input tothe forest ecosystem which currently exceeds the critical loadby 5 kg N ha^-1 yr ^-1is mainly accumulated in the soil and no significant nitrateleaching is occurring.     

Wassertechnische Strategien zur Reduzierung der Trinkwasserbelastung durch Arzneimittelwirkstoffe

Results The available research results concerning the application of innovative methods of wastewater and drinking water purification to eliminate pharmaceuticals are summarized in the present paper. An increase of the activated sludge (aerobic sludge) age to 8–10 days in treatment plants can improve the metabolization of less persistent pharmaceutical agents whereas expansion of the sojourn time beyond 10 days will not result in a remarked increase of degradation for most pharmaceutical substances. First results have shown that wastewater treatment plants with integrated membrane bioreactors (MBR) using micro- and ultrafiltration membranes do not provide significantly better results compared to the conventional wastewater treatment plants with respect to the removal of organic micropollutants (including pharmaceutical residues). The use of powdered carbon in biologically treated wastewater is able to reduce pharmaceutical residues up to 80?% in the run-off water. Pilot studies scrutinize the treatment of highly contaminated effluents via catalytic photooxidation. Regarding the suitability of the method to reduce the contamination of drinking and wastewater with pharmaceuticals yet only few data from laboratory scale testing are available. Activated carbon filtration is preferably used for drinking water treatment. Primarily against the background of disinfection, ozonation is widely used for drinking water treatment, but for wastewater treatment the method is still at the experimental stage and will hardly become of practical importance because of high costs. Sustainable wastewater separation is grounded on decentralized concepts by considering material cycles (recycling) at the place of origin. In the long term, separation measures can significantly contribute to declining drug concentrations in drinking water. Regarding the quarrying of drinking water by bank filtration water, river water or artificially enriched ground water, end-of-pipe techniques are vital. Most commonly, activated carbon or activated carbon combined with ozonization is applied and assures a high drinking water quality. Discussion The advantages and disadvantages of the different water treatment methods mainly concern the varying degrees of effectiveness with respect to the elimination of very persistent pharmaceutical agents, the generation of problematical metabolites and additional waste materials, hygienic problems, energy needs and the necessity to employ appropriate technical staff for operation. Although the biodegradation of very persistent drugs cannot be enhanced by an extension of the activated sludge age, this modification should be considered in sewage plants to reduce the contamination with less persistent medical agents. Compared with conventional wastewater treatment, membrane bioreactors provide the advantage of a better control of biological activities on the plant and a comparably small plant size but high investment and operation costs. Additionally, pharmaceuticals such as carbamazepin are only insufficiently removed from wastewater by membrane bioreactors. The regular use of powdered activated carbon in sewage treatment plants would also increase the costs of wastewater treatment and would additionally exclude the further use of sewage sludge in agriculture. Currently, in Germany the further use of sewage sludge is handled differently by the Federal States and discussed controversially. The implementation of ozonation as an additional treatment method in wastewater treatment plants is not realistic because of cost concerns. Additionally, the method produces analytically as yet not assessed metabolites with unknown (eco-)toxicological impacts. For this reason ozonation should currently not be applied unless the reaction products are removed subsequently by filtration through activated carbon. For industrial sewage photooxidation is in a state of testing but an application for municipal wastewater is, up to now, out of question. When river bank filtration is used for the supply of drinking water the use of activated carbon for purification should be essential. The lifetime of the filters is often defined by the filter capacities to eliminate radiocontrast media (e.?g., iopamidole, amidotrizoic acid). Many water supply companies already apply the ozonization prior to activated carbon filtration which supports the elimination of pharmaceuticals from the sewage. The unique developmental potential of the wastewater separation can be seen in the possibility to link up these methods with sustainable exploitation techniques and concepts (re-use of sanitized water, production of fertilizer, compost and biogas). Wastewater separation will not make ‘middle/end-of-pipe’ techniques dispensable but will make their handling more effective because concentrations of pharmaceutical agents are higher in separated effluents compared to those usually found in municipal wastewater, which in mixing sewage systems is even diluted by surface runoff. Conclusions Following today’s state of knowledge activated carbon filtration (eventually coupled with ozonization) is best suited to remove drug residues and other xenobiotics from raw water. Water works that do not apply the activated carbon filtration technique for cleanup of bank filtration water should consider an upgrade. The ozonization is primarily required for disinfection of the water. As no acute health hazard proceeds from drinking water contamination by pharmaceuticals at the present time, the upgrade of wastewater treatment plants by one of the aforementioned innovative methods is currently not required in view of drinking water quality. This offers the opportunity to develop sustainable approaches that already aim to reduce drug contaminations of wastewater and hence of ground-, surface- and drinking water. Recommendations and perspectives On a short- to mid-term perspective enriched sewage of hospitals, nursing homes and other medical facilities should be collected and treated separately. From a technical point of view the conditioning of separated hospital effluents (yellow- and greywater) via activated carbon or membrane filtration is possible but should be combined with disinfection. On a mid- and long-term scale sustainable sanitary concepts based on wastewater separation (black-, grey- and/or rainwater) associated with the recycling of mineral nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium) should be realized for development, industry and trade areas, buildings with public lavatories, airports, motorway service areas, and large office and hotel buildings. Strategies focusing primarily on up-grading of municipal wastewater treatment plants are currently existing but the related technologies are largely in a test phase. This is why a particular technique should not be favored at the moment. The combination of various techniques (i.?e., ozonization combined with activated carbon filtration) is known to be very efficient for the removal of pharmaceutical residues from water, but the combination cannot be expected to become of importance in treatment of domestic wastewater because of high costs. Moreover, improvement of wastewater treatment technologies to remove pharmaceutical residues will not make the employment of end-of-pipe techniques in water works redundant and therefore will not lead to saving of expenses.