A new metric space incorporating radon-222 for generation of back trajectory clusters in atmospheric pollution studies

A novel metric space for the clustering of back trajectories to be used in fine particle aerosol data analysis was proposed and evaluated. The metric is based on spatial and non-spatial variables incorporating great-circle distance, altitude and radon-222.Its performance was examined using the intra-cluster variation of measured and fingerprint apportioned aerosol mass as the quantitative criterion. The new metric was demonstrated to perform better than those based on great-circle distance, or a great-circle distance and altitude alone. The same criterion was applied to investigate the clustering performance as a function of the length of its back trajectories. The optimum back trajectory length was found to be dependent on the pollution source being considered.Performance tests, as well as the application of the new metric space to re-analysis of previously published results, were based on a three year long dataset comprising co-located aerosol fine particles (PM_2.5) collection and hourly measurements of radon-222 concentration.The new metric space can easily be redefined to include other trace species.     

Climate Change Adaptation: Putting Principles into Practice

Carrying out wildlife conservation in a changing climate requires planning on long timescales at both a site and network level, while also having the flexibility to adapt actions at sites over short timescales in response to changing conditions and new information. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), a land-owning wildlife conservation charity in the UK, achieves this on its nature reserves through its system of management planning. This involves setting network-wide objectives which inform the 25-year vision and 5-year conservation objectives for each site. Progress toward achieving each site’s conservation objectives is reviewed annually, to identify any adjustments which might be needed to the site’s management. The conservation objectives and 25-year vision of each site are reviewed every 5 years. Significant long-term impacts of climate change most frequently identified at RSPB reserves are: loss of intertidal habitat through coastal squeeze, loss of low-lying islands due to higher sea levels and coastal erosion, loss of coastal freshwater and brackish wetlands due to increased coastal flooding, and changes in the hydrology of wetlands. The main types of adaptation measures in place on RSPB reserves to address climate change-related impacts are: re-creation of intertidal habitat, re-creation and restoration of freshwater wetlands away from vulnerable coastal areas, blocking artificial drainage on peatlands, and addressing pressures on freshwater supply for lowland wet grasslands in eastern and southeastern England. Developing partnerships between organizations has been crucial in delivering large-scale adaptation projects.     

Policy And Practice The Environmental Component of the Leader Programme, 1992-94

Rural development across various Member States of the EU has been assisted by the LEADER programme (1992-94). In view of the fact that this is to be extended by LEADER 2 (1994-99), a preliminary analysis of the environment component of the original programme is presented. Whilst LEADER was never intended to be an environmental programme as such, many local groups showed considerable environmental awareness in selecting and shaping their projects. There is reason for qualified optimism that the basic tenets of sustainable development have permeated much of LEADER.     

A Critical Appraisal of Field Evidence From A Regional Survey for Acid Deposition Effects On Scottish Moorland Podzols

Samples have been collected from major horizons of 34 podzol profiles distributed throughout Scotland, all developed from granite or granitic tills and under Calluna moorland. the pH in water and calcium chloride pastes, exchangeable cations and cation exchange capacity, and extractable aluminium of the soils collected have been measured, and the results studied in relation to reported atmospheric deposition of H⁺, non-marine sulphur and nitrate. for all horizons, significant positive correlations were found between soil pH and rainfall mean pH, as might be expected when the critical load of H⁺ deposition is exceeded. Acidifying pollutant deposition also apparently increased soil extractable aluminium concentrations in the B and C horizons. However, exchangeable base cation concentrations tended to increase, rather than decrease, with increasing precipitation acidity. This effect was attributed to increases in biogeochemical cycling of base cations, increases in leaching inputs of base cations from overlying A/E horizon soils, and increases in the inputs of base cations leached from upslope. the results suggest that the simple steady state mass approach to the quantification of critical loads, as often applied, may be an oversimplification.     

Controls on Leaching of N Species in Upland Moorland Catchments

Spatial and temporal changes in mobility of N species have been studied for three UK upland river networks, the Etherow in the South Pennines, the Nether Beck in the Lake District and the Dee in NE Scotland. The catchments are subject to N deposition at 35.1, 22.0 and 10.8–15.6 kg N ha^–1 yr^–1, respectively. TheNH ₄ ⁺ leaching appears to be predominantly regulated by flowpath in more polluted upland catchments. It is greatest where water draining acidified peaty soils contributes more to total discharge. Soluble organic matter may provide the dominant counter anion. In the Etherowand Dee catchments, which are dominated by acid mineral and organic soils, at high discharge NO ₃ ^– also appears to be associated with greater input of water from acidified soils. In contrast, for the Nether Beck, higher NO ₃ ^– concentrations are associated with tributaries draining soils contributingwater with higher alkalinity, suggesting nitrification is important. For the Etherow and Dee, dissolved organic N (DON) appears to originate predominantly from acidified, peaty soils. Spiking experiments with peat soil from the Etherow catchment confirmed the limited capacity of these soils to utilize inorganic N inputs, favouring equilibration with NH ₄ ⁺ inputs and leaching losses of inorganic N throughout the year.     

What drives plan implementation? Plans,planning agencies and developers

This article investigates the determinants of plan implementation by applying a recently‐developed Plan Implementation Evaluation methodology. The lack of methodology to assess the implementation of plans has so far precluded any systematic analysis of the determinants of the implementation of local environmental plans. The article focuses on the implementation of plans in New Zealand. The key factors of implementation are: the quality of the plan; the capacity and commitment of land developers to implement plans; the capacity and commitment of the staff and leadership of planning agencies to implement plans; and the interactions between developers and the agency. The analysis is based on 353 permits implementing six local environmental plans in New Zealand, and on surveys of the developers who obtained the permits and of the planning agencies that granted the permits. The analysis finds that plan implementation is mainly driven by the resources of the planning agencies and by the quality of the plans, rather than by the characteristics of developers. Investments in plan writing and agency and staff capacity building thus improve the implementation of plans in the long‐run.     

Biochemical and ecological similarities in marsh plants and diving animals

Higher plants which can survive flooding have certain ecological and biochemical similarities with diving reptiles, birds, and mammals. The ecological similarities arise from the fact that these wet-land plants and diving animals are all terrestrial organisms which have re-entered the aquatic habitat as a retreat or ecological refuge free from interference by dry-land species. To survive in the wet-land or aquatic habitat species of terrestrial origin have to restrict their metabolic rate in the absence of oxygen and exploit a wide range of metabolic products to aid proton disposal and avoid the dangers of cell toxicity due to the accumulation of an excessive oxygen debt. In some plants metabolic adaptation to anoxia (low oxygen supply) resembles that found in animal parasites. It is a striking example of metabolic co-evolution that the retreat of so many terrestrial species of both plants and animals back to the low-oxygen habitat has been made possible by the exploitation of similar biochemical control mechanisms and pathways.     

Cystic hygromata in trisomy 18 and 21

Prenatal diagnosis of cystic hygromata by means of ultrasound examination is possible and highly accurate. Although this is usually associated with Turner's syndrome especially if there is co-existent hydrops fetalis we report three cases in which cystic hygromata were associated with trisomies; two cases of trisomy 21 and one of trisomy 18.     

The prenatal diagnosis of transient cysts of the fetal choroid plexus

Ultrasound scanning during the second trimester of pregnancy revealed cysts of the choroid plexus in the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle in five cases. All disappeared spontaneously between 20 and 23 weeks and normal infants were subsequently delivered.     

Environmental impact assessment: An international evaluation

Experiences with environmental impact assessment (EIA) in a number of countries are discussed in the light of both explicit and implicit goals and objectives. Adequate environmental information is not always available to decision makers because of failure to apply EIA to all relevant decisions, the continuing inadequacies of prediction and evaluation techniques, the failure to consider alternatives adequately, and the bias of some EISs. EIA frequently results in changes to proposals and may result in stricter environmental management conditions in some cases, but some people regard it as a failure because it has not stopped development. Generally, EIA leads to better integration of environmental factors into project planning. Open procedures and freedom of information encourage responsiveness to EIA procedures, which can be weakened by discretionary powers and lack of access to the courts by public interest groups. However, legal standing may have side effects that offset its advantages. EIA can encourage cooperation and coordination between agencies but does not ensure them. Similarly, it can have a limited role in coordinating interstate and international policies. In the long term, the success of EIA depends on adequate monitoring, reassessment, and enforcement over the life of the project. EIA has generally opened up new opportunities for public participation, and may help to reduce conflict. EIA procedures need to be integrated with other environmental protection and development control programs, and various means exist for reducing its cost to developers and the public.