Effects of fine particles on children’s hospital admissions for respiratory health in Seville,Spain

This study analyzes the influence of fine particles PM_2.5 on nonprogrammed children’s hospital admissions that occurred in the city of Seville between 2007 and 2011, and makes an economic assessment of the cost of the children’s hospital admissions for respiratory causes due to particle pollution. The PM_2.5 dose-response functions for each type of hospital admission were used to quantify the cost of the hospital admissions. It can be concluded that the PM_2.5 concentrations have negative effects on bronchiolitis, pneumonia, asthma, and bronchitis and other causes. A reduction of the daily average annual PM_2.5 concentration from the existing levels to 10 µg/m³ would show an annual average reduction of children’s hospital admissions due to respiratory diseases of 0.09 cases. This paper shows that the daily average cost for children hospital admissions due to respiratory reasons in the city of Seville, associated with daily average annual levels of PM_2.5 above 10 µg/m³, was almost 200€.

Implications:?Elevated PM_2.5 concentrations in Seville have negative effects on children’s bronchiolitis, pneumonia, asthma, and bronchitis and other causes. A reduction of the daily average annual PM_2.5 concentration from the existing levels to 10 μg/m³ would suppose an annual mean reduction of children’s hospital admissions due to respiratory diseases of 0.09 cases.     

Degradation of clofibric acid in acidic aqueous medium by electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton

Acidic aqueous solutions of clofibric acid (2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-methylpropionic acid), the bioactive metabolite of various lipid-regulating drugs, have been degraded by indirect electrooxidation methods such as electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton with Fe(2+) as catalyst using an undivided electrolytic cell with a Pt anode and an O(2)-diffusion cathode able to electrogenerate H(2)O(2). At pH 3.0 about 80% of mineralization is achieved with the electro-Fenton method due to the efficient production of oxidant hydroxyl radical from Fenton's reaction between Fe(2+) and H(2)O(2), but stable Fe(3+) complexes are formed. The photoelectro-Fenton method favors the photodecomposition of these species under UVA irradiation, reaching more than 96% of decontamination. The mineralization current efficiency increases with rising metabolite concentration up to saturation and with decreasing current density. The photoelectro-Fenton method is then viable for treating acidic wastewaters containing this pollutant. Comparative degradation by anodic oxidation (without Fe(2+)) yields poor decontamination. Chloride ion is released during all degradation processes. The decay kinetics of clofibric acid always follows a pseudo-first-order reaction, with a similar rate constant in electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton that increases with rising current density, but decreases at greater metabolite concentration. 4-Chlorophenol, 4-chlorocatechol, 4-chlororesorcinol, hydroquinone, p-benzoquinone and 1,2,4-benzenetriol, along with carboxylic acids such as 2-hydroxyisobutyric, tartronic, maleic, fumaric, formic and oxalic, are detected as intermediates. The ultimate product is oxalic acid, which forms very stable Fe(3+)-oxalato complexes under electro-Fenton conditions. These complexes are efficiently photodecarboxylated in photoelectro-Fenton under the action of UVA light.     

Fate of sex hormones in two pilot-scale municipal wastewater treatment plants: conventional treatment

The fate of seven sex hormones (estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), ethinylestradiol (EE2), testosterone, androstenedione, and progesterone) was determined in two pilot-scale wastewater treatment plants operated under conventional loading conditions. The levels of hormones in both the liquid and the solid matrixes of the plants were determined. Each of the two 20-l/h pilot-scale plants consisted of a primary clarifier followed by a three-stage aeration tank and a final clarifier. The primary sludge and the waste activated sludge (WAS) were digested anaerobically in one pilot plant and aerobically in the other. The pilot plants were fed a complex synthetic wastewater spiked with the hormones. Levels of testosterone, androstenedione and progesterone were close to method detection limit (MDL) concentrations in the final and digester effluents (both liquid and solid phases) and were considered as completely removed. Average mass flux removals from the liquid streams (plant influent minus secondary clarifier effluent) for the natural estrogens were 82% for E1, 99% for E2, and 89% for (E1+E2). An average overall removal of only 42% was achieved for EE2. These values reflect removals averaged for the two pilot plants.     

Degradation of the herbicide 2,4-DP by anodic oxidation, electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton using platinum and boron-doped diamond anodes

This paper reports the degradation of 2,4-DP (2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)-propionic acid) solutions of pH 3.0 by environmentally friendly electrochemical methods such as anodic oxidation, electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton with a Pt or boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode. In the two latter techniques an O(2)-diffusion cathode was used and 1.0mM Fe(2+) was added to the solution to give hydroxyl radical (*OH) from Fenton's reaction between Fe(2+) and H(2)O(2) generated at the cathode. All treatments with BDD are viable to decontaminate acidic wastewaters containing 2,4-DP since they give complete mineralization, with loss of chloride ion, at high current due to the great production of oxidant *OH at the BDD surface favoring the destruction of final carboxylic acids. *OH formed from Fenton's reaction destroys more rapidly aromatic products, making the electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton processes much more efficient than anodic oxidation. UVA light in photoelectro-Fenton with BDD has little effect on the degradation rate of pollutants. The comparative procedures with Pt lead to slower decontamination because of the lower oxidizing power of this anode. The effect of current on the degradation rate and efficiency of all methods is studied. The 2,4-DP decay always follows a pseudo-first-order kinetics. Chlorohydroquinone, chloro-p-benzoquinone and maleic, fumaric, malic, lactic, pyruvic, acetic, formic and oxalic acids are detected as products by chromatographic techniques. A general sequence accounting for by the reaction of all these intermediates with the different oxidizing agents is proposed.     

Study of metals concentration levels in Patella piperata throughout the Canary Islands, Spain

In order to assess the extent of metal contamination at rocky shores of the Canarian Archipelago, metal concentrations have been measured in Patella piperata (Gould, 1846), using the standard atomic absorption spectrophotometer technique. Ranges of elements concentrations measured (in μg g⁻¹) found in the biota were: Cd (0.36 ± 0.26 μg g⁻¹ dry wt.), Cu (2.05 ± 0.91 dry wt.), Pb (1.57 ± 1.14 μg g⁻¹dry wt.) and Zn (10.37 ± 4.60 μg g⁻¹ dry wt.). Variation in metal concentrations in Patella, was tested by using non-parametric statistical methods. Cd content had a maximum in the Archipelago Chinijo, northward of Lanzarote Island. The metal concentrations recorded at the clean stations may be considered carefully if they are used like background levels.     

Trace element accumulation in woody plants of the Guadiamar Valley, SW Spain: a large-scale phytomanagement case study

Phytomanagement employs vegetation and soil amendments to reduce the environmental risk posed by contaminated sites. We investigated the distribution of trace elements in soils and woody plants from a large phytomanaged site, the Guadiamar Valley (SW Spain), 7 years after a mine spill, which contaminated the area in 1998. At spill-affected sites, topsoils (0-25 cm) had elevated concentrations of As (129 mg kg(-1)), Bi (1.64 mg kg(-1)), Cd (1.44 mg kg(-1)), Cu (115 mg kg(-1)), Pb (210 mg kg(-1)), Sb (13.8 mg kg(-1)), Tl (1.17 mg kg(-1)) and Zn (457 mg kg(-1)). Trace element concentrations in the studied species were, on average, within the normal ranges for higher plants. An exception was white poplar (Populus alba), which accumulated Cd and Zn in leaves up to 3 and 410 mg kg(-1) respectively. We discuss the results with regard to the phytomanagement of trace element contaminated sites.     

Solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry to evaluate pharmaceuticals in effluents. A pilot monitoring study

The present work provides a multi-residue analytical method for determining a selection of 20 pharmaceuticals from diverse therapeutical classes in hospital effluent wastewater. The method is based on the simultaneous extraction of the target compounds by solid phase extraction (SPE), followed by liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) analysis. Using TOF-MS, accurate mass measurements within 2 ppm error were obtained for most of the pharmaceuticals studied. Empirical formula information can be obtained by this method, allowing the unequivocal identification of the target compounds in the samples. Validation studies showed that LC-TOF-MS analysis is a valuable new tool for identification and quantification of pharmaceuticals in wastewater. Recoveries, using Oasis HLB cartridges at pH 7, were higher than 75% for all pharmaceuticals, except for ranitidine, 4-methylaminoantipyrine (4-MAA), cefotaxime and omeprazole, which needed specific pH conditions for their extraction. Linearity of response over two orders of magnitude was demonstrated (r > 0.99). Matrix effects resulting in suppression of the response were observed. For most of the compounds ion suppression was less than 39%, except for metronidazole, carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide, naproxen and erythromycin, where the signal suppression was 42%, 59%, 46% and 95%, respectively. A simple and effective approach to minimize or avoid matrix interferences was the 1 : 4 dilution of the SPE extracts. Method detection limits (MDLs) and quantification limits (MQLs) ranged between 4-115 ng l(-1) and 14-384 ng l(-1), respectively. The precision of the method, calculated as relative standard deviation (RSD), ranged from 1.1-19.8% and 1.7-21.7% for intra- and inter-day, respectively. The developed analytical method was applied to the analysis of hospital effluent wastewater during a survey study. 18 of the 20 pharmaceuticals studied were detected at concentration levels of microg l(-1), reaching in some cases concentrations over 100 microg l(-1), and in the case of the analgesic and antipyretic dipyrone metabolite, higher than 1000 microg l(-1).     

Single and combined effects of aluminum (Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>) and zinc (ZnO) oxide nanoparticles in a freshwater fish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carassius auratus</Emphasis>

The increasing use of nanoparticles (NPs) worldwide has raised some concerns about their impact on the environment. The aim of the study was to assess the toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles, singly or combined, in a freshwater fish (Carassius auratus). The fish were exposed for 7, 14, and 21 days to different concentrations of NPs (10 μg Al₂O₃.L^?1, 10 μg ZnO.L^?1, 10 μg Al₂O₃.L^?1 plus 10 μg ZnO.L^?1, 100 μg Al₂O₃.L^?1, 100 μg ZnO.L^?1, and 100 μg Al₂O₃.L^?1 plus 100 μg ZnO.L^?1). At the end of each exposure period, antioxidant enzyme activity (catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, and superoxide dismutase), lipid peroxidation, and histopathology were assessed in the gills and livers of C. auratus. The results show an increase in catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the gills and livers of fish, especially after 14 days of exposure to single and combined NPs, followed by a reduction at 21 days. An increase in glutathione S-transferase (GST) was observed in gills after 7 days for all tested NP concentrations (single and combined); while in livers, a significant increase was determined after 14 days of exposure to 100 μg.L^?1 of both single ZnO and Al₂O₃ NPs. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) significantly increased in gills after 7 days of exposure to 100 μg.L^?1 Al₂O₃ NPs (single or combined). In livers, LPO increased significantly after 7 days of exposure to all tested concentrations of both single ZnO and Al₂O₃ (except for 10 μg Al₂O₃.L^?1), and after 14 days of exposure to ZnO (10 and 100 μg.L^?1) and Al₂O₃ (100 μg.L^?1)_. The results from histological observations suggest that exposure to metal oxide NPs affected both livers and gills, presenting alterations such as gill hyperplasia and liver degeneration. However, the most pronounced effects were found in gills. In general, this study shows that the tested NPs, single or combined, are capable of causing sub-lethal effects on C. auratus, but when combined, NPs seem to be slightly more toxic than when added alone.     

Raptor ecotoxicology in Spain: a review on persistent environmental contaminants

Initial studies on the pressure from environmental contaminants on raptor populations in Spain date back to the 1980s, and they have been carried out from a range of viewpoints using a range of sentinel raptor species. However, there is no national monitoring scheme, and therefore the research carried out has been sporadic both spatially and temporally. The exposure to metals has not varied over time, except in the case of lead, whose concentration in eggs and tissues has diminished. In general, the concentrations of metals detected in raptor samples from Spain are generally low and not sufficient to produce toxic effects. Excepting DDT and DDE, most organochlorine-based pesticides in raptors from Spain have diminished over the last 2 decades. The concentrations of DDE found in the eggs of various species could in part explain problems in the reproductive success of raptors in Spain.     

Spiking solvent, humidity and their impact on 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP extractability from high humic matter content soils

The 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a hormone-like herbicide widely used in agriculture. Although its half life in soil is approximately two weeks, the thousands of tons introduced in the environment every year represent a risk for human health and the environment. Considering the toxic properties of this compound and its degradation products, it is important to assess and monitor the 2,4-D residues in agricultural soils. Furthermore, experiments of phyto/bioremediation are carried out to find economic and environmental friendly tools to restore the polluted soils. Accordingly, it is essential to accurately measure the amount of 2,4-D and its metabolites in soils. There is evidence that 2,4-D extraction from soil samples seriously depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, especially in those soils with high content of humic acids. The aim of this work was to assess the variables that influence the recovery and subsequent analysis of 2,4-D and its main metabolite (2,4-dichlorophenol) from those soils samples. The results showed that the recovery efficiency depends on the solvent and method used for the extraction, the amount and kind of solvent used for dissolving the herbicide and the soil water content at the moment of spiking. An optimized protocol for the extraction and quantification of 2,4-D and its main metabolite from soil samples is presented.