Scale dependency of conservation outcomes in a forest-offsetting scheme

Offset schemes help avoid or revert habitat loss through protection of existing habitat (avoided deforestation), through the restoration of degraded areas (natural regrowth), or both. The spatial scale of an offset scheme may influence which of these 2 outcomes is favored and is an important aspect of the scheme's design. However, how spatial scale influences the trade-offs between the preservation of existing habitat and restoration of degraded areas is poorly understood. We used the largest forest offset scheme in the world, which is part of the Brazilian Forest Code, to explore how implementation at different spatial scales may affect the outcome in terms of the area of avoided deforestation and area of regrowth. We employed a numerical simulation of trade between buyers (i.e., those who need to offset past deforestation) and sellers (i.e., landowners with exceeding native vegetation) in the Brazilian Amazon to estimate potential avoided deforestation and regrowth at different spatial scales of implementation. Allowing offsets over large spatial scales led to an area of avoided deforestation 12 times greater than regrowth, whereas restricting offsets to small spatial scales led to an area of regrowth twice as large as avoided deforestation. The greatest total area (avoided deforestation and regrowth combined) was conserved when the spatial scale of the scheme was small, especially in locations that were highly deforested. To maximize conservation gains from avoided deforestation and regrowth, the design of the Brazilian forest-offset scheme should focus on restricting the spatial scale in which offsets occur. Such a strategy could help ensure conservation benefits are localized and promote the recovery of degraded areas in the most threatened forest landscapes.     

Nitrous oxide emissions respond differently to mineral and organic nitrogen sources in contrasting soil types

The use of various animal manures for nitrogen (N) fertilization is often viewed as a viable replacement for mineral N fertilizers. However, the impacts of amendment type on NO production may vary. In this study, NO emissions were measured for 2 yr on two soil types with contrasting texture and carbon (C) content under a cool, humid climate. Treatments consisted of a no-N control, calcium ammonium nitrate, poultry manure, liquid cattle manure, or liquid swine manure. The N sources were surface applied and immediately incorporated at 90 kg N ha before seeding of spring wheat ( L.). Cumulative NO-N emissions from the silty clay ranged from 2.2 to 8.3 kg ha yr and were slightly lower in the control than in the fertilized plots ( = 0.067). The 2-yr mean NO emission factors ranged from 2.0 to 4.4% of added N, with no difference among N sources. Emissions of NO from the sandy loam soil ranged from 0.3 to 2.2 kg NO-N ha yr, with higher emissions with organic than mineral N sources ( = 0.015) and the greatest emissions with poultry manure ( < 0.001). The NO emission factor from plots amended with poultry manure was 1.8%, more than double that of the other treatments (0.3-0.9%), likely because of its high C content. On the silty clay, the yield-based NO emissions (g NO-N kg grain yield N) were similar between treatments, whereas on the sandy loam, they were greatest when amended with poultry manure. Our findings suggest that, compared with mineral N sources, manure application only increases soil NO flux in soils with low C content.     

Evaluation of Progress in Achieving TMDL Mandated Nitrogen Reductions in the Neuse River Basin, North Carolina

Management efforts to control excess algal growth in the Neuse River and Estuary, North Carolina began in the 1980s, with an initial focus on phosphorus (P) input reduction. However, continued water quality problems in the 1990s led to development of a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for nitrogen (N) in 1999 to improve conditions in N-sensitive estuarine waters. Evaluation of the effectiveness of management actions implemented in the Neuse River basin is a challenging endeavor due to natural variations in N export associated with climate. A simplified approach is presented that allows evaluation of trends in flow-normalized nutrient loading to provide feedback on effectiveness of implemented actions to reduce N loading to estuarine waters. The approach is applied to five watershed locations, including the headwaters of the Neuse Estuary. Decreases in nitrate + nitrite (NO₃–N) concentrations occurred throughout the basin and were largest just downstream of the Raleigh metropolitan area. Conversely, concentrations of total Kjeldahl N (TKN) increased at many stations, particularly under high flow conditions. This indicates a relative increase in organic N (Org-N) inputs since the mid-1990s. Overall, patterns in different N fractions at watershed stations indicate both partial success in reducing N inputs and ongoing challenges for N loading under high flow conditions. In downstream waters, NO₃–N concentrations decreased concurrent with TMDL implementation in the upper portion of the estuary but not in the middle and lower reaches. The lack of progress in the middle and lower reaches of the estuary may, at least in part, be affected by remineralization of settled particle-bound N deposited under high river flows.     

Interaction of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with a monolayer of oleic acid at the air–water interface – A simple proxy for atmospheric aerosol

The reactions between atmospheric oxidants and organic amphiphiles at the air–water interface of an aerosol droplet may affect the size and critical supersaturation required for cloud droplet formation. We demonstrate that no reaction occurs between gaseous nitrogen dioxide (1000 ppm in air) and a monolayer of an insoluble amphiphile, oleic acid (cis-9-octadecenoic acid), at the air–water interface which removes material from the air–water interface. We present evidence that the NO₂ isomerises the cis-9-octadecenoic (oleic) acid to trans-9-octadecenoic (elaidic) acid. The study presented here is important for future and previous studies of (1) the reaction between the nitrate radical, NO₃, and thin organic films as NO₂ is usually present in high concentrations in these experimental systems and (2) the effect of NO₂ air pollution on the unsaturated fatty acids and lipids found at the air–liquid surface of human lung lining fluid.     

Year-long continuous personal exposure to PM2.5 recorded by a fast responding portable nephelometer

Personal exposure to particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter under 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) was monitored using a DustTrak nephelometer. The battery-operated unit, worn by an adult individual for a period of approximately one year, logged integrated average PM_2.5 concentrations over 5 min intervals. A detailed time-activity diary was used to record the experimental subject’s movement and the microenvironments visited. Altogether 239 days covering all the months (except April) were available for the analysis. In total, 60 463 acceptable 5-min averages were obtained. The dataset was divided into 7 indoor and 4 outdoor microenvironments. Of the total time, 84% was spent indoors, 10.9% outdoors and 5.1% in transport. The indoor 5-min PM_2.5 average was higher (55.7 μg m^?3) than the outdoor value (49.8 μg m^?3). The highest 5-min PM_2.5 average concentration was detected in restaurant microenvironments (1103 μg m^?3), the second highest 5-min average concentration was recorded in indoor spaces heated by stoves burning solid fuels (420 μg m^?3). The lowest 5-min mean aerosol concentrations were detected outdoors in rural/natural environments (25 μg m^?3) and indoors at the monitored person’s home (36 μg m^?3). Outdoor and indoor concentrations of PM_2.5 measured by the nephelometer at home and during movement in the vicinity of the experimental subject’s home were compared with those of the nearest fixed-site monitor of the national air quality monitoring network. The high correlation coefficient (0.78) between the personal and fixed-site monitor aerosol concentrations suggested that fixed-site monitor data can be used as proxies for personal exposure in residential and some other microenvironments. Collocated measurements with a reference method (β-attenuation) showed a non-linear systematic bias of the light-scattering method, limiting the use of direct concentration readings for exact exposure analysis.     

Testing the Potential for Predictive Modeling and Mapping and Extending Its Use as a Tool for Evaluating Management Scenarios and Economic Valuation in the Baltic Sea (PREHAB)

We evaluated performance of species distribution models for predictive mapping, and how models can be used to integrate human pressures into ecological and economic assessments. A selection of 77 biological variables (species, groups of species, and measures of biodiversity) across the Baltic Sea were modeled. Differences among methods, areas, predictor, and response variables were evaluated. Several methods successfully predicted abundance and occurrence of vegetation, invertebrates, fish, and functional aspects of biodiversity. Depth and substrate were among the most important predictors. Models incorporating water clarity were used to predict increasing cover of the brown alga bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus and increasing reproduction area of perch Perca fluviatilis, but decreasing reproduction areas for pikeperch Sander lucioperca following successful implementation of the Baltic Sea Action Plan. Despite variability in estimated non-market benefits among countries, such changes were highly valued by citizens in the three Baltic countries investigated. We conclude that predictive models are powerful and useful tools for science-based management of the Baltic Sea.     

Microbially Mediated In Situ Desorption Accelerates Remediation of Large Gasoline Product Plume

Remediation of a large separate‐phase hydrocarbon product and associated dissolved‐phase gasoline plume was accelerated by coupling multiphase extraction with in situ microbial stimulation. At the beginning of remediation activities, the separate‐phase hydrocarbon plume extended an estimated seven acres with product thickness measuring up to 2.1 feet thick. Within 18 months after beginning extraction, reduction of gasoline constituents in groundwater became asymptotic and measureable product disappeared from the upgradient source area. At that time, the remediation team initiated a program of limited in situ anaerobic bioremediation with the goal of stimulating production of natural surfactants from native microbes to release petroleum from the soil matrix. Groundwater concentrations of gasoline constituents increased gradually over the next three years, improving recovery without biofouling the pump‐and‐treat infrastructure. Using this approach, the groundwater component of the remedy was completed in less than five years, substantially less than the 10 years to 15 years predicted by modeling. This strategy demonstrated a more sustainable approach to remediation, reducing electrical usage by an estimated 800 megawatt hours, reducing infrastructure requirements, and preserving an estimated 150 million gallons of groundwater for this arid agricultural area. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Inflammatory stress response in A549 cells as a result of exposure to coal: Evidence for the role of pyrite in coal workers’ pneumoconiosis pathogenesis

On the basis of a recent epidemiological study it is hypothesized that pyrite content in coal is an important factor in coal workers’ pneumoconiosis (CWP) pathogenesis. While the role of pyrite in pathogenesis remains to be resolved, the ability of the mineral to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) through various mechanisms is likely a contributing factor. The aim of this study was to elucidate the importance of the pyrite content of coal in generating an inflammatory stress response (ISR), which is defined as the upregulation of ROS normalized by cell viability. The ISR of A549 human lung epithelial cells in the presence of natural coal samples with variable pyrite contents was measured. Normalized to surface area, five particle loadings for each coal reference standard were analyzed systematically for a total of 24 h. The ISR generated by coals containing 0.00, 0.01, and 0.49 wt.% pyritic sulfur is comparable to,though less than, the ISR generated by inert glass beads (299% of the control). The coals containing 0.52 and 1.15 wt.% pyritic sulfur generated the greatest ISR (798% and 1426% of the control, respectively).     

Advantages and possibilities of solid recovered fuel cocombustion in the European energy sector

The 1999/31 Elemental Carbon Directive sets strict rules on the disposal of untreated municipal solid waste in the European Union countries and forces a reduction of the biodegradable quantities disposed off to landfills up to 35% of the amount produced in 1995 in the coming decade. More environmentally friendly waste management options shall be promoted under the framework of the Community Waste Strategy ([96] 399 Final). In this context, the production and thermal use of solid recovered fuels (SRFs), derived from nonhazardous bioresidues and mixed- and mono-waste streams, could be a key element in a future waste management system. Within the scope of the European Demonstration Project, RECOFUEL, SRF cocombustion was demonstrated in two large-scale lignite-fired coal boilers at RWE power station in Weisweiler, Germany. As a consequence of the high biogenic share of the cocombusted material, this approach can be considered beneficial following European Directive 2001/77/EC on electricity from renewable energy sources (directive). During the experimental campaign, the share of SRF in the overall thermal input was adjusted to approximately 2%, resulting into a feeding rate of approximately 25 t/hr. The measurement campaign included boiler measurements in different locations, fuel and ash sampling, and its characterization. The corrosion rates were monitored by dedicated corrosion probes. The overall results showed no significant influence of SRF cocombustion on boiler operation, emissions behavior, and residues quality for the thermal shares applied. Also, no effect of the increased chlorine concentration of the recovered fuel was observed in the flue gas path after the desulfurization unit.     

Temporal Trends of Young-of-Year Fishes in Lake Erie and Comparison of Diel Sampling Periods

We explored temporal trends of young-of-year (YOY) fishes caught in bottom trawl hauls at an established offshore monitoring site in Lake Erie in fall during 1961–2001. Sampling was conducted during morning, afternoon, and night in each year. Catches per hour (CPH) of alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) YOY were relatively low and exhibited no temporal trend. This result was consistent with the species’ intolerance to Lake Erie’s adverse winter water temperatures. Gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) YOY decreased sharply after 1991, which was consistent with recent oligotrophication of the lake. Following the establishment in 1979 and rapid increase of white perch (Morone americana) YOY, white bass (Morone chrysops) and freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens) YOY decreased. Trout-perch (Percopsis omiscomaycus) YOY decreased during 1986–1991, but recovered to previous levels during 1991–2001. The recovery coincided with the resurgence of mayflies (Ephemoptera) in the lake. CPH of spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius) and emerald shiner (N. atherinoides) YOY exhibited no temporal trend between 1961 and the late 1970s to early 1980s. CPH of yellow perch (Perca flavescens) YOY decreased during 1961–1988, and walleye (Sander vitreum) YOY increased overall during the time series. These observations were consistent with published studies of adults in the region. CPH of 4 of the 10 species of YOY considered were greatest during night. CPH for walleye YOY was higher in the morning than in the afternoon, but there was no significant difference between night and morning abundances. The results suggest that (1) CPH of YOY fishes may be a useful monitoring tool for Lake Erie, and (2) offshore monitoring programs that do not include night sampling periods may underestimate recruitment for several common species.