From Policy to Practice: Challenges in Infant Feeding in Emergencies During the Balkan Crisis

The preparation and dissemination of policy statements are necessary but insufficient to prevent the inappropriate use of infant-feeding products in emergencies. The widespread failure of humanitarian agencies operating in the Balkan crisis to act in accordance with international policies and recommendations provides a recent example of the failure to translate infant-feeding policies into practice. This article explores the underlying reasons behind the failures which include: (1) the weak institutionalisation of policies; (2) the massive quantities of unsolicited donations of infant-feeding products: (3) the absence of monitoring systems; (4) inadequate co-ordination mechanisms; (5) the high costs of correcting mistakes; and (6) the cumulative effects of poor practice. Efforts to uphold best practice during the crisis are also documented. Finally, the article identifies actions that could be undertaken in advance of and during future emergencies to enhance the application of infant feeding policies in emergencies.     

An evaluation of substrate degradation patterns in the composting process. Part 2: temperature-corrected profiles

In this paper, the patterns of 44 substrate degradation profiles obtained from the composting literature are examined following their correction to a constant temperature of 40 degrees C, using a new procedure presented in this work. The applicability of a single exponential model, a double exponential model and a non-logarithmic Gompertz model in describing their behaviour is then evaluated. Multi-phase profiles were most commonly seen, with convex shapes observed in only a relatively small proportion of the profiles. Convex shapes were also embedded within other profiles, either preceeded by a lag phase, or followed by non-convex behaviour. Sigmoidal patterns were relatively rare. Of the temperature-corrected data sets examined, 33 were found to be either not well modelled by, or inappropriate for, any of the above models. Two fits rated as good were obtained when using the single exponential model, and one fit rated as excellent, plus one fit rated as good, were obtained when using the double exponential model. A single fit rated as excellent was found when using the non-logarithmic Gompertz model. The lag phase, which was observed in many data sets, was successfully modelled using the non-logarithmic Gompertz function where excellent and good fits were obtained, but as expected this phase of the profile could not be modelled by either the single or double exponential functions. When the lag phase or post-convex curve data was removed from 20 data sets, use of the single exponential function resulted in three fits rated as excellent and two rated as good. When a double exponential model was applied to these data sets, three fits rated as good were obtained, whilst application of the modified Gompertz model gave one fit rated as good. The remainder of the fits were rated as moderate to fair. It is concluded that the evidence supporting the use of the single exponential model, the double exponential model or the non-logarithmic Gompertz model to describe full substrate degradation profiles in composting following their adjustment for temperature effects is limited. Further work is suggested in order to investigate the nature of those profiles which were not well modelled, to more precisely ascertain the cardinal temperatures for composting used in the function of Rosso et al. (1993) [Rosso, L., Lobry, J.R., Flandrois, J.P., 1993. An unexpected correlation between cardinal temperatures of microbial growth highlighted by a new model. J. Theor. Biol 162, 447-463.], which was employed in the present temperature correction procedure, and to incorporate correction for varying moisture and oxygen concentrations.     

Transparency,accountability and empowerment in sustainability governance: a conceptual review

ABSTRACT

This paper offers a conceptual examination of the power-effects of transparency, as information disclosure, on those making accountability claims against actors deemed to be causing significant environmental harm. Informed by Lukes’s ([2005]. Power: A radical view (second edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.) multi-dimensional theory of power, I review recent scholarship to interrogate four hypotheses positing empowerment for accountability claimants arising from the disclosure of sustainability information. Across public and private governance forms, academic research suggests that information disclosure promotes the communication of the sustainability interests of affected parties, and in some cases enhances the capacity of these parties to evaluate justifications provided by relevant power-wielders. However, evidence is weaker that disclosure of sustainability information empowers accountability claimants to sanction or otherwise steer those responsible; and there is little support that transparency fosters wider political interrogation of the configurations of authority producing environmental harm. Differentiating between behavioural and non-behavioural understandings of power allows an evaluation of these research findings on the power-related effects of information disclosure.     

An assessment of chemical contaminants in sediments from the St. Thomas East End Reserves,St. Thomas,USVI

The St. Thomas East End Reserves or STEER is located on the southeastern end of the island of St. Thomas, USVI. The STEER contains extensive mangroves and seagrass beds, along with coral reefs, lagoons, and cays. Within the watershed, however, are a large active landfill, numerous marinas, resorts, various commercial activities, an EPA Superfund Site, and residential areas, all of which have the potential to contribute pollutants to the STEER. As part of a project to develop an integrated assessment for the STEER, 185 chemical contaminants were analyzed in sediments from 24 sites. Higher levels of chemical contaminants were found in Mangrove Lagoon and Benner Bay in the western portion of the study area. The concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), zinc, copper, lead, and mercury were above a NOAA Effects Range-Low (ERL) sediment quality guideline at one or more sites, indicating impacts may be present in more sensitive species or life stages. Copper at one site in Benner Bay was above a NOAA Effects Range-Median (ERM) guideline indicating effects on benthic organisms were likely. The antifoulant boat hull ingredient tributyltin (TBT) was found at the third highest concentration in the history of NOAA’s National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program, which monitors the nation’s coastal and estuarine waters for chemical contaminants and bioeffects. The results from this project will provide resource managers with key information needed to make effective decisions affecting coral reef ecosystem health and gauge the efficacy of restoration activities.     

Dissipation and sorption of six commonly used pesticides in two contrasting soils of New Zealand

We investigated dissipation and sorption of atrazine, terbuthylazine, bromacil, diazinon, hexazinone and procymidone in two contrasting New Zealand soils (0–10 cm and 40–50 cm) under controlled laboratory conditions. The six pesticides showed marked differences in their degradation rates in both top- and subsoils, and the estimated DT₅₀ values for the compounds were: 19–120 (atrazine), 10–36 (terbuthylazine), 12–46 (bromacil), 7–25 (diazinon), 8–92 (hexazinone) and 13–60 days for procymidone. Diazinon had the lowest range for DT₅₀ values, while bromacil and hexazinone gave the highest DT₅₀ values under any given condition on any soil type. Batch derived effective distribution coefficient (K _d ^eff) values for the pesticides varied markedly with bromacil and hexazinone exhibiting low sorption affinity for the soils at either depth, while diazinon gave high sorption values. Comparison of pesticide degradation in sterile and non-sterile soils suggests that microbial degradation was the major dissipation pathway for all six compounds, although little influence of abiotic degradation was noticeable for diazinon and procymidone.     

Interlaborafory Comparison of Formaldehyde Emissions from Particleboard Underlayment in Small-Scale Environmental Chambers

Formaldehyde (CH₂O) emissions from particleboard underlayment have been measured in 0.17 and 0.2 m³ chambers at separate laboratories to test the comparability of small scale environmental chamber measurements under different ventilation and product loading conditions. Absolute CH₂O calibration was established through intermethod comparison of different monitoring techniques against a CH₂O generation apparatus. Interlaboratory precision was enhanced via co-calibration of each laboratory’s CH₂O colorimetric analyzer against the same blank and bi-level generation source at the beginning and end of the study. The results show excellent intermethod and interlaboratory agreement in both the CH₂O calibration and particleboard emissions testing. The CH₂O emission rates of the test specimens demonstrate a Fick’s Law dependence on CH₂O vapor concentration. Measured CH₂O concentrations are described by a single-compartment, single emitter model, and are inversely proportional to the ratio [N/L (m/h)] of the air exchange rate [N(h^-1)] and product loading [L(m^-1)]. Comparison tests at varying N and L, but uniform N/L were performed; similar CH2O concentrations were measured for N and L levels selected from an indoor compartment model, and for fivefold larger N and L values, which are more convenient for small-scale chamber testing.     

Climate forecasts in disaster management: Red Cross flood operations in West Africa, 2008

In 2008, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) used a seasonal forecast for West Africa for the first time to implement an Early Warning, Early Action strategy for enhanced flood preparedness and response. Interviews with disaster managers suggest that this approach improved their capacity and response. Relief supplies reached flood victims within days, as opposed to weeks in previous years, thereby preventing further loss of life, illness, and setbacks to livelihoods, as well as augmenting the efficiency of resource use. This case demonstrates the potential benefits to be realised from the use of medium‐to‐long‐range forecasts in disaster management, especially in the context of potential increases in extreme weather and climate‐related events due to climate variability and change. However, harnessing the full potential of these forecasts will require continued effort and collaboration among disaster managers, climate service providers, and major humanitarian donors.     

An evaluation of benthic macroinvertebrate biomass methodology

Evaluation of analytical methods employed for wet weight (live or preserved samples) of benthic macroinvertebrates reveals that centrifugation at 140 x gravity for one minute yields constant biomass estimates. Less relative centrifugal force increases chance of incomplete removal of body moisture and results in weighing error, while greater force may rupture fragile macroinvertebrates, such as mayflies. Duration of specimen exposure in ethanol, formalin, and formol (formaling-ethanol combinations) causes significant body weight loss with within 48 hr formalin and formol cause less body weight loss than ethanol. However, as all preservatives tested cause body weight loss, preservation time of samples collected for comparative purposes should be treated uniformly. Dry weight estimates of macroinvertebrates are not significantly affected by kind of preservative or duration of exposure. Constant dry weights are attained by oven drying at 103 °C at a minimum of four hours or vacuum oven drying (15 inches of mercury pressure) at 103 °C for a minimum of one hour. Although requiring more time in preparation than oven drying and inalterably changing specimen body shape, freeze drying (10 microns pressure, -55 °C, 24 hr) provides constant dry weights and is advantageous for long term sample storage by minimizing curatorial attention. Constant ash-free dry weights of macroinvertebrate samples are attained by igniting samples at 500–550 °C for a minimum of one hour with slow cooling to room temperature in desiccators before weighing.     

Factors influencing paternity in multiply mated female red-sided garter snakes and the persistent use of sperm stored over winter

In some species, sperm is stored within the female reproductive tract for months to years, and yet remains viable to fertilize eggs and produce offspring. Female red-sided garter snakes store sperm for over 7 months of winter dormancy. In previous work, we demonstrated that these stored sperm account for an average of 25 % paternity of a litter when the female mates with a male at spring emergence. Here, we tested whether last-male sperm precedence was prevalent when a female mates with two males during the spring. On average, paternity was shared equally among the first (P₁ proportion of paternity of the first male to mate) and second males (P₂) to mate in the spring, and stored sperm (P_ss), but the variance in paternity was high. Thus, last male sperm precedence may diminish when a female has more than two mates. Male size did not affect paternity, but, as the interval between matings increased, P₁ increased at the expense of P_ss. Interestingly, as the second spring male’s copulation duration increased, P₁ also increased at the expense of P₂. This result suggests that female influence over sperm and/or copulatory plug transfer during matings may also affect which male fathers her offspring in response to coercive matings as we assisted females to mate for their second mating. Finally, all females were spring “virgins”; consequently, sperm stored from autumn matings (and/or previous spring matings) remain competitive even when faced with two rivals in sperm competition and is likely the driver of the evolution of sperm longevity.