Evaluating U.S. National Heritage Areas: Theory, Methods, and Application

Like many governmental actors in recent decades, the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) has operated increasingly through partnerships with other state and federal agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, and private sector corporations. Perhaps the most salient example of this trend toward partnerships is the rapid growth and development of national heritage areas (NHAs). Since the first NHA received congressional designation in 1984, NHAs have become an increasingly popular strategy for protecting and managing landscapes. To date, congressional designation has been granted to 49 NHAs, making them one of the fastest growing initiatives involving the NPS. Despite this growth, no prior research has examined the efficacy or effectiveness of the NHA model. This article introduces the NHA concept, while reviewing the literature on evaluation research and its application to protected area management. We then offer an NHA program theory model for evaluating NHAs. The model was developed using a theory-based, process evaluation approach, along with 90 qualitative interviews conducted at three study sites: Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor, MA-RI (BLAC); Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor, PA (DELE); and Cane River National Heritage Area, LA (CANE). We conclude by discussing the key challenges and implications associated with developing a long-term research agenda for evaluating NHAs.     

Measuring Inorganic and Alkyl Lead Emissions from Stationary Sources

Described are the results from studies done to provide test methods for state and local air pollution control agencies to measure accurately the lead emissions from stationary source stacks as required in the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Lead. Separate test methods were developed for measuring inorganic lead and alkyl lead compounds. Inorganic lead is collected in a standard particulate sampling train, digested with 50% (V/V) nitric acid and 3% hydrogen peroxide and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Alkyl lead compounds are collected in iodine monochloride and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry without prior solvent extraction. Standard solutions of inorganic lead in dilute nitric acid are used to calibrate the spectrophotometer in both methods. The inorganic lead test method was evaluated using baghouse dust samples from a primary copper and a primary lead smelter and stack samples from a lead recovery furnace, a primary battery manufacturing plant, a gray iron foundry and a secondary lead smelter. The alkyl lead method was evaluated using alkyl lead motor mix fluids and samples from an alkyl lead manufacturing plant vent stack.     

Radon risk assessment: The effect of voluntary sampling distributions and bias

This paper examines the problem of estimating indoor radon concentrations for radon-induced lung cancer risk assessment. Previous authors have identified various problems and possible corrections for the use of generally available radon screening measurements. Bias evident in data collected from volunteers is described; regional databases developed from voluntary data generally exhibit higher mean values than those obtained from random samples. Tools are developed to better characterize the differences in voluntary and random concentration distributions. Application is demonstrated using voluntary and random radon survey data for the state of North Dakota.     

URBANIZATION INFLUENCES ON AQUATIC COMMUNITIES IN NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS STREAMS1

ABSTRACT: Biotic indices and sediment trace element concentrations for 43 streams in northeastern Illinois (Chicago area) from the 1980s and 1990s were examined along an agricultural to urban land cover gradient to explore the relations among biotic integrity, sediment chemistry, and urbanization. The Illinois fish Alternative Index of Biotic Integrity (AIBI) ranged from poor to excellent in agricultural/rural streams, but streams with more than 10 percent watershed urban land (about 500 people/mi²) had fair or poor index scores. A macroinvertebrate index (MBI) showed similar trends. A qualitative habitat index (PIBI) did not correlate to either urban indicator. The AIBI and MBI correlated with urban associated sediment trace element concentrations. Elevated copper concentrations in sediment occurred in streams with greater than 40 percent watershed urban land. The number of intolerant fish species and modified index of biotic integrity scores increased in some rural, urbanizing, and urban streams from the 1980s to 1990s, with the largest increases occurring in rural streams with loamy/sandy surficial deposits. However, smaller increases also occurred in urban streams with clayey surficial deposits and over 50 percent watershed urban land. These data illustrate the potentially complex spatial and temporal relations among biotic integrity, sediment chemistry, watershed urban land, population density, and regional and local geologic setting.     

The opportunity cost of regulating phosphorus from broiler production in the Illinois River Basin

The Illinois River Basin in eastern Oklahoma and northwest Arkansas is an example of a region where significant growth in poultry production has been accompanied by water quality problems. The primary concern in the basin is the problem of phosphorus in runoff that is associated with application of litter to crops. Existing data suggest that there has been a continuing decline in the quality of water in the Illinois River, and discussions have focused on developing and implementing a phosphorus standard. The specific objectives of this study are to estimate the reduction in poultry production necessary to achieve the reduction in phosphorus runoff under a set of phosphorus constraints, including soil test phosphorus, and to estimate the opportunity costs of reducing poultry production in the basin under each phosphorus constraint on the economic activity in the watershed. A mathematical programming model that incorporates poultry production and cropping decisions is developed. The parameters for the model are identified and then it is solved to provide a base solution. Model solutions are then developed for the different policy target levels of phosphorus. The model structure is modified to account for the presence of soil test phosphorus levels and the corresponding limits on soil test phosphorus throughout the basin. This formulation includes current soil test phosphorus throughout the basin. All of the applications assume that the only disposal option for poultry litter is land application within the basin. An economic impact assessment of the effects of phosphorus limitations in the basin is also conducted for Arkansas counties only, Oklahoma counties only, and all five affected counties combined.     

Siliceous nanoplankton. II. Newly discovered cysts and abundant choanoflagellates from the Weddell Sea,Antarctica

Siliceous choanoflagellates and previously undescribed, siliceous cyst-like spheroids (in the size range 2.5 to 15 m) were found below sea-ice in the Weddell Sea and studied with scanning electron microscopy. Cell counts from water samples obtained over a 10,000 km area indicated that both spheroids and choanoflagellates were abundant in the upper 100 m of the water column, averaging about 10⁵ cells l^-1. The large numbers of phagotrophic choanoflagellates suggest that bacterioplankton-picoplankton food chains are important and may indicate the presence of longer, more complex trophic networks than previously considered in Antarctic waters. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the spheroids may be the cysts of choanoflagellates; if so, the production of siliceous cysts by members of this enigmatic taxon may be of considerable interest in discussions of the phylogenetic position of the group in relation to the algae and the metazoans. Similar cysts were found simultaneously in the North Pacific Ocean (see preceding paper: Booth et al. 1980), and recently we have discovered the cysts in the upwelling area of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The occurrence of the cyst in such geographically distant localities suggests that they have a worldwide distribution. Since the minute cysts are easily overlooked on the light microscope, their recognition and further study undoubtedly require the electron microscopic examination of plankton samples.     

Environmental sampling of volatile organic compounds during the 2018 Camp Fire in Northern California

Trace analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during wildfires is imperative for environmental and health risk assessment. The use of gas sampling devices mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to chemically sample air during wildfires is of great interest because these devices move freely about their environment, allowing for more representative air samples and the ability to sample areas dangerous or unreachable by humans. This work presents chemical data from air samples obtained in Davis, CA during the most destructive wildfire in California's history - the 2018 Camp Fire – as well as the deployment of our sampling device during a controlled experimental fire while fixed to a UAV. The sampling mechanism was an in-house manufactured micro-gas preconcentrator (µPC) embedded onto a compact battery-operated sampler that was returned to the laboratory for chemical analysis. Compounds commonly observed in wildfires were detected during the Camp Fire using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS), including BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m+p-xylene, and o-xylene), benzaldehyde, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, naphthalene, 1,2,3-trimethylbenzene and 1-ethyl-3-methylbenzene. Concentrations of BTEX were calculated and we observed that benzene and toluene were highest with average concentrations of 4.7 and 15.1 µg/m³, respectively. Numerous fire-related compounds including BTEX and aldehydes such as octanal and nonanal were detected upon experimental fire ignition, even at a much smaller sampling time compared to samples taken during the Camp Fire. Analysis of the air samples taken both stationary during the Camp Fire and mobile during an experimental fire show the successful operation of our sampler in a fire environment.     

The role of scientific studies in building consensus in environmental decision making: a coral reef example

We present a new approach for characterizing the potential of scientific studies to reduce conflict among stakeholders in an analytic-deliberative environmental decision-making process. The approach computes a normalized metric, the Expected Consensus Index of New Research (ECINR), for identifying where additional scientific research will best support improved decisions and resolve possible conflicts over preferred management actions. The ECINR reflects the expected change in agreement among parties over preferred management actions with the implementation and consideration of new scientific studies. We demonstrate the ECINR method based on a preliminary application to coral reef protection and restoration in the Guánica Bay Watershed, Puerto Rico, focusing on assessing and managing anthropogenic stressors, including sedimentation and pollution from land-based sources such as sewage, agriculture, and development. Structured elicitations of values and beliefs conducted at a coral reef decision support workshop held at La Parguera, Puerto Rico, are used to develop information for illustrating the methodology. The ECINR analysis was focused on a final study group of seven stakeholders, consisting of resource managers and scientists, who were not in agreement on the efficacy and respective benefits of reducing loadings from three sources: sewage, agriculture, and development. The scenario assumed that loadings would be reduced incrementally from each source through a series of management steps, which would be ranked in order of maximizing anticipated benefits. An examination of whether beliefs exhibited greater confidence and coherence between stakeholders when informed by plausible study results followed. The results suggest that new scientific research would be generally likely to bring people who initially disagreed to agree. Seventy-five percent of the hypothetical research results were projected to result in more agreement among the stakeholders. However, there can be situations where prior beliefs may be too different from the study results to shift perspectives enough to result in more agreement. Furthermore, in a few cases, hypothetical research results were projected to lead to more conflict among stakeholders. Priority research, according to the seven stakeholders, would be to quantify loadings from agriculture and sewage, and not loadings from development, since it is predicted to make little difference in the outcome. Assuming the stakeholders are conflict-averse, they would likely opt for research on sewage loadings as the highest priority. Though preliminary, these results suggest that ECINR can provide useful insights into the social implications of a research program.     

Models for radionuclide transfer to fruits and data requirements

This paper presents a review of available models for radionuclide transfer to fruit with particular emphasis on the model types and the purpose for which they were developed. It is clear that the model structures that have been developed range from the simple to the complex and that the underlying data on which they are based is incomplete. The work programme of the BIOMASS Theme 3 Fruits Working Group includes model inter-comparison and model validation studies that will give an indication of the performance of the different model types discussed here. The models included in these comparative studies include several new and as yet unpublished models. In the case of fruit, there is an urgent need for data on changing radionuclide distribution in plant organs with time to increase confidence in current models.     

Reducing carbon,tackling fuel poverty: adoption and performance of air-source heat pumps in East Yorkshire,UK

Deploying heating technologies, such as air-source heat pumps (ASHPs), can respond to the dual challenges of tackling fuel poverty and reducing carbon emissions from domestic energy consumption. In the UK, ASHP performance has been found to be below design levels. Elements of three strands of literature – innovation diffusion, environmental psychology and neighbourhood effects – are combined to gain insights into why the adoption and performance of ASHPs are lagging policy targets and design potential. Evidence from users, installers and area-based scheme facilitators suggests that the perceived complexity of the technology is a barrier. The level of technology maturity and the typical profile of the elderly fuel poor do not match; the target group might prefer to be late adopters or laggards in adopting technology. The role of installers is critical as the disruption from installation is a barrier to adoption and ASHPs place demands on users to change existing practices.