A guide to using the internet to monitor and quantify the wildlife trade

The unrivaled growth in e-commerce of animals and plants presents an unprecedented opportunity to monitor wildlife trade to inform conservation, biosecurity, and law enforcement. Using the internet to quantify the scale of the wildlife trade (volume and frequency) is a relatively recent and rapidly developing approach that lacks an accessible framework for locating relevant websites and collecting data. We produced an accessible guide for internet-based wildlife trade surveillance. We detailed a repeatable method involving a systematic internet search, with search engines, to locate relevant websites and content. For data collection, we highlight web-scraping technology as an efficient way to collect data in an automated fashion at regularly timed intervals. Our guide is applicable to the multitude of trade-based contexts because researchers can tailor search keywords for specific taxa or derived products and locations of interest. We provide information for working with the diversity of websites used in wildlife trade. For example, to locate relevant content on social media (e.g., posts or groups), each social media platform should be examined individually via the site's internal search engine. A key advantage of using the internet to study wildlife trade is the relative ease of access to an increasing amount of trade-related data. However, not all wildlife trade occurs online and it may occur on unobservable sections of the internet.     

Trace-metal contamination in the glacierized Rio Santa watershed,Peru

The objective of this research is to characterize the variability of trace metals in the Rio Santa watershed based on synoptic sampling applied at a large scale. To that end, we propose a combination of methods based on the collection of water, suspended sediments, and riverbed sediments at different points of the watershed within a very limited period. Forty points within the Rio Santa watershed were sampled between June 21 and July 8, 2013. Forty water samples, 36 suspended sediments, and 34 riverbed sediments were analyzed for seven trace metals. The results, which were normalized using the USEPA guideline for water and sediments, show that the Rio Santa water exhibits Mn concentrations higher than the guideline at more than 50% of the sampling points. As is the second highest contaminating element in the water, with approximately 10% of the samples containing concentrations above the guideline. Sediments collected in the Rio Santa riverbed were heavily contaminated by at least four of the tested elements at nearly 85% of the sample points, with As presenting the highest normalized concentration, at more than ten times the guideline. As, Cd, Fe, Pb, and Zn present similar concentration trends in the sediment all along the Rio Santa.The findings indicate that care should be taken in using the Rio Santa water and sediments for purposes that could affect the health of humans or the ecosystem. The situation is worse in some tributaries in the southern part of the watershed that host both active and abandoned mines and ore-processing plants.     

Female adaptation to developmental plasticity in male calling behavior

The katydid Neoconocephalus triops exhibits in North America substantial developmental plasticity of male mating calls. The AM rate of the summer calls is significantly faster than that of the winter calls at the same temperature. In the tropics, where N. triops originated, males express only the fast summer-call phenotype. We tested two alternative hypotheses: (1) call plasticity in the population from North America evolved in response to selection by female preference after N. triops colonized North America, or (2) call plasticity evolved before N. triops expanded into North America and its expression in the novel environment led to adaptive change of female preferences. First, we tested whether call plasticity was present in tropical populations of N. triops. Tropical males expressed the winter-call phenotype when reared under winter conditions, indicating that call plasticity did not evolve in response to temperate climates. Second, we compared female preferences among temperate and tropical populations. We found that the temperature dependence of preferred AM rate was significantly steeper in temperate N. triops than in a tropical population of N. triops. Third, we compared temperature dependence of female preference of the N. triops populations to three Neoconocephalus species without call plasticity. Only temperate N. triops had significantly steeper temperature dependence than the other species. This steeper temperature dependence matched female preference to the fast summer call at high temperatures and to the slow winter call at low temperatures in temperate populations. These results support the hypothesis that female preference changed in N. triops in North America to compensate for the plasticity of male calls.     

Site fidelity of male Galápagos sea lions: a lifetime perspective

Knowledge about the distribution of resources can lead to the development of spatial preferences and long-term site fidelity. Individuals are expected to choose sites that best suit their needs. However, dominant individuals restrict movements of less competitive ones. Accordingly, one may expect spatial preferences to differ with regard to individual characteristics and to change over time. We investigated lifetime changes of site fidelity patterns with regard to reproductive success in male Galápagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki). Showing a high degree of natal philopatry in the first 2 years of life, non-territorial males pass through a stage of fidelity to their natal colony where they develop preferences for areas outside prime breeding areas. Variation in the degree of spatial preferences was not associated with age or size, characteristics linked to an individual’s dominance status. For non-territorial males, roaming proved to be an adequate strategy to gain reproductive success. Only the most competitive males established territories in areas preferentially visited by females. They had a high probability to return to breeding areas where they successfully reproduced in previous seasons. Overall, the results reveal lifetime changes in site fidelity with regard to male status. The degree of site fidelity observed within the colony suggests familiarity and thus a high degree of tolerance among individuals using the same areas. This seems to facilitate attendance in the colony and thus the possibility to prospect for oestrus females.     

Same-sex sexual behavior in insects and arachnids: prevalence, causes, and consequences

Same-sex sexual (SSS) behavior represents an evolutionary puzzle: whilst associated costs seem obvious, positive contributions to fitness remain unclear. Various adaptive explanations have been proposed and thorough reviews exist for vertebrates, but a thorough synthesis of causes for SSS behavior in invertebrates is lacking. Here we provide evidence for such behavior in ~110 species of insects and arachnids. Males are more frequently involved in SSS behavior in the laboratory than in the field, and isolation, high density, and exposure to female pheromones increase its prevalence. SSS behavior is often shorter than the equivalent heterosexual behavior. Most cases can be explained via mistaken identification by the active (courting/mounting) male. Adaptive explanations, such as sperm transfer of the mounting male via the mounted one or gaining experience by young males, are of limited general significance. The passive (being courted/mounted) male is sometimes responsible for this “mistake” by releasing sex pheromones or carrying female pheromones that were attached to his cuticle during prior mating activity. Passive males often resist courting/mating attempts. SSS behavior in arthropods is predominantly based on mistaken identification and is probably maintained because the cost of rejecting a valid opportunity to mate with a female is greater than that of mistakenly mating with a male. Many species exhibiting SSS behavior also mate with related species, another case of mistaken identification. Future research should focus on uncovering the situations/contexts in which mistaken identification is more or less costly for males.     

Technical efficiency analysis of the conversion of cropland to forestland program in Jiangxi,Shaanxi, and Sichuan

Conversion of Cropland to Forestland Program (CCFP) has greatly impacted China’s agricultural sector, and more specifically rural farmers. While changes in living standards as a result of the implementation of the CCFP have been analyzed, little research has been conducted regarding the impacts of such policies on farming operations. As agriculture contributes nearly 10% of national GDP, it is important to analyze the implications of policies on a national industry. An input-oriented data envelopment analysis (DEA) model was used to examine the technical efficiency of farming operations following implementation of the CCFP, using survey data from farmers in Jiangxi, Shaanxi, and Sichuan provinces. Additionally, the impact of factors such as urbanization, age and education, and land fragmentation was examined with respect to farming operational efficiency. Scale inefficiency was found to have the greatest effect on overall inefficiency in farming operations in comparison to pure technical inefficiency, which was largely influenced by the presence and degree of land fragmentation of land holdings. Findings can be used to inform national land-use policies facilitating land fragmentation in China and address gaps in existing broader level studies that utilize non-parametric approaches to examine the technical efficiency of Chinese farmers affected by the CCFP.     

Variation in and constraints upon the decomposition of woolscour sludge

The woolscouring (wool washing) industry has traditionally been viewed as highly polluting and, consequently, effluent treatment systems have been sought. The first stage in the current treatment system for woolscour wastewater, a chemical flocculation process (Sirolan CF), creates a sludge composed of soil and wool grease. We investigated the chemical and biological characteristics of this sludge. The sludge was found to be highly variable on a day to day basis in terms of its chemical composition and biodegradability; 0.8 to 27.8% of sludge total nitrogen was mineralized over 30 d at 37 degrees C. The grease component of sludge (14-40% on a dry weight basis) may retard the decomposition of the sludge but the polyacrylamide flocculant used in its production and its pesticide content had no effect on the rate of decomposition. Our results suggest that variability in substrate quality may translate into variability in treatment performance and have important implications for the biological treatment of industrial wastes, including composting.     

Transfer of Escherichia coli to water from drained and undrained grassland after grazing

The aim of this study was to determine the load of Escherichia coli transferred via drainage waters from drained and undrained pasture following a grazing period. Higher concentrations (ranging between 10(4) and 10(3) colony forming units [CFU] g(-1)) of E. coli persisted in soil for up to 60 d beyond the point where cattle were removed from the plots, but these eventually declined in the early months of spring to concentrations less than 10(2) CFU g(-1). The decline reflects the combined effect of cell depletion from the soil store through both wash-out and die-off of E. coli. No difference (P > 0.05) was observed in E. coli loads exported from drained and undrained plots. Similarly, no difference (P > 0.05) was observed in E. coli concentrations in drainage waters of mole drain flow and overland plus subsurface interflow. Intermittent periods of elevated discharge associated with storm events mobilized E. coli at higher concentrations (e.g., in excess of 400 CFU mL(-1)) than observed during low flow conditions (often <25 CFU mL(-1)). The combination of high discharge and cell concentrations resulted in the export of E. coli loads from drained and undrained plots exceeding 10(6) CFU L(-1) s(-1). The results highlight the potential for drained land to export E. coli loads comparable with those transferred from undrained pasture.