Creating a “values” chain for sustainable development in developing nations: where Maslow meets Porter

This paper serves to establish an appropriate framework for prioritizing policy related to sustainable development by combining elements of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory with Porter’s value chain theory. An appropriate balance of social sustainability, economic sustainability, and environmental sustainability is defined so that policy makers may be provided some direction in regard to appropriate and socially just resource priorities. The model that forms the basis for this framework is then tested through hierarchal regression analysis using data from 45 developing countries. Using these results, the values chain framework has been refined to consider that self-actualization and sustainable development are one and the same and that the satisfaction of society’s physiological needs through the prioritization of policies related to environmental sustainability is the principle motivator for moving on to the attainment of higher-order needs such as increased levels of sustainable development.     

Trace metal bioaccumulation: models, metabolic availability and toxicity

Aquatic invertebrates take up and accumulate trace metals whether essential or non-essential, all of which have the potential to cause toxic effects. Subsequent tissue and body concentrations of accumulated trace metals show enormous variability across metals and invertebrate taxa. Accumulated metal concentrations are interpreted in terms of different trace metal accumulation patterns, dividing accumulated metals into two components - metabolically available metal and stored detoxified metal. Examples of different accumulation patterns are described from crustaceans but have a general applicability to all aquatic invertebrates. Toxicity does not depend on total accumulated metal concentration but is related to a threshold concentration of internal metabolically available metal. Toxicity ensues when the rate of metal uptake from all sources exceeds the combined rates of detoxification and excretion (if present) of the metal concerned. The biodynamic model of trace metal bioaccumulation allows the prediction and explanation of widely differing accumulated trace metal concentrations in organisms, combining geochemical analyses of environmental metal concentrations with the measurement of key physiological parameters for a species from the site under consideration. The combination of the biodynamic model as a unified explanation of metal bioaccumulation with an understanding of the relationship between accumulation and toxicity sets the stage for a realistic understanding of the significance of trace metal concentrations in aquatic invertebrates.     

Is it possible to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in pastoral ecosystems of the tropics?

Climate change science has been discussed and synthesized by the world's best minds at unprecedented scales. Now that the Kyoto Protocol may become a reality, it is time to be realistic about the likelihood of success of mitigation activities. Pastoral lands in the tropics hold tremendous sequestration potential but also strong challenges to potential mitigation efforts. Here we present new analyses of the global distribution of pastoral systems in the tropics and the changes they will likely undergo in the next 50 years. We then briefly summarize current mitigation options for these lands. We then conclude by attempting a pragmatic look at the realities of mitigation. Mitigation activities have the greatest chance of success if they build on traditional pastoral institutions and knowledge (excellent communication, strong understanding of ecosystem goods and services) and provide pastoral people with food security benefits at the same time.     

Linking agricultural adaptation strategies,food security and vulnerability: evidence from West Africa

Adaptation strategies to reduce smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and seasonality are needed given the frequency of extreme weather events predicted to increase during the next decades in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in West Africa. We explored the linkages between selected agricultural adaptation strategies (crop diversity, soil and water conservation, trees on farm, small ruminants, improved crop varieties, fertilizers), food security, farm household characteristics and farm productivity in three contrasting agro-ecological sites in West Africa (Burkina Faso, Ghana and Senegal). Differences in land area per capita and land productivity largely explained the variation in food security across sites. Based on land size and market orientation, four household types were distinguished (subsistence, diversified, extensive, intensified), with contrasting levels of food security and agricultural adaptation strategies. Income increased steadily with land size, and both income and land productivity increased with degree of market orientation. The adoption of agricultural adaptation strategies was widespread, although the intensity of practice varied across household types. Adaptation strategies improve the food security status of some households, but not all. Some strategies had a significant positive impact on land productivity, while others reduced vulnerability resulting in a more stable cash flow throughout the year. Our results show that for different household types, different adaptation strategies may be ‘climate-smart’. The typology developed in this study gives a good entry point to analyse which practices should be targeted to which type of smallholder farmers, and quantifies the effect of adaptation options on household food security. Subsequently, it will be crucial to empower farmers to access, test and modify these adaptation options, if they were to achieve higher levels of food security.     

Strategic environmental assessment in Hong Kong

This review examines the development and application of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) process in the planning framework of Hong Kong. Two strategic planning case studies are evaluated within the context of SEA, namely the Territorial Development Strategy Review (TDS Review) and the Third Comprehensive Transport Study (CTS-3). Rapid population growth and urbanisation in Hong Kong, coupled with a historic lack of planning controls and inherent conflicts between government departments have been major obstacles to achieving sustainable development in the territory. Despite these challenges, Hong Kong was one of the first Asian countries to apply SEA to major development plans, where the implementation of the 'SUSDEV 21' study on sustainable development has demonstrated the government's commitment towards integrated environmental protection. The application of SEA has provided decision-makers with key information on potential environment impacts arising from proposed developments, resulting in greater accountability and transparency in the decision-making process. SEA in Hong Kong has also prompted an increased level of environmental awareness and co-operation between government departments and agencies responsible for the management of Hong Kong's natural and urban environments. However, the application of SEA in Hong Kong continues to have notable limitations. SEA needs to evolve beyond its current sectoral application to examine ways in which development decisions can not only pre-empt and prevent environmental damage, but also positively enhance and restore existing natural resources. Current land use plans and transportation strategies still largely determine the pattern of development in the near future without adequate longer-term environmental cost-benefit analysis. Sustainable development includes environmental, social and economic considerations, and these inter-related elements need be suitably balanced. SEA is not a means to obstruct development in Hong Kong, but should be recognised for its inherent socio-economic and ecological value, and fully integrated with the decision-making process. Whilst it is admirable that Hong Kong has taken positive steps in this direction, it is now an opportune moment for the government to have the foresight and tenacity to create a sustainable development framework for Hong Kong into the future.     

Livelihood adaptations to climate variability: insights from farming households in Ghana

Climate variability poses a significant threat to many sectors of Sub-Saharan Africa’s economy. Agriculture is one of the most climate sensitive sectors because of its dependence on rain-fed cultivation. This paper identifies the main adaptation strategies used by farming households in the Sudan savannah and forest-savannah transitional agro-ecological zones of Ghana, in order to reduce the adverse impacts of climate variability on their livelihood activities. It combines questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and a range of participatory methods. Results show that households employ a range of on- and off-farm adaptation strategies including changing the timing of planting, planting early maturing varieties, diversification of crops, support from family and friends, and changing their diets to manage climate variability. Results reveal that most households use adaptation strategies linked to livelihood diversification to adapt to the increased climate variability seen in recent decades. Most households now engage in multiple non-arable farming livelihood activities in an attempt to avoid destitution because of crop failure linked to climate variability (particularly drought). The findings suggest that policy makers need to formulate more targeted climate adaptation policies and programmes that are linked to enhancing livelihood diversification, as well as establishing communication routes for farming communities to better share their knowledge on successful local climate adaptation strategies.     

Integrated hydro- and wind power generation: a game changer towards environmental flow in the Sub-middle and Lower São Francisco River Basin?

Many renewable resources for the generation of electricity, such as hydropower and wind power, are dependent on climatic factors. Reservoirs have been created to overcome the stochastic nature of river flows and to make water supply more reliable. However, reservoirs are affecting the ecological status of river ecosystems, e.g., by modifying the flow regime, triggering discussions regarding the discharge of reservoirs. In Brazil’s northeast region, the installed capacity for wind power generation has increased substantially in recent years. Setting up a modeling system for simulating wind power and hydropower generation in this study, it is analyzed whether wind power generation, peaking in the dry season, can help to achieve a more environmentally oriented flow regime in the Sub-middle and Lower São Francisco River Basin. Simulated higher discharges from reservoirs during the rainy season and lower discharges during the dry season, representing a more natural flow regime, will reduce hydropower generation in the dry season. Under recent conditions, the resulting gap in electricity generation can only be partially covered by wind power. A large share needs to be generated by thermal power plants or be imported from other regions in Brazil. The planned future increase in installed wind power capacity can change this picture; the demand for electricity generated by thermal power plants and imported will decrease. Adopting an integrated approach for hydropower and wind power generation, the flow regime in the Sub-middle and Lower São Francisco River Basin can be modified to improve the ecological status of the river system.     

Partitioning of radionuclides and trace elements in phosphogypsum and its source materials based on sequential extraction methods

Phosphogypsum is a waste produced by the phosphate fertilizer industry. Although phosphogypsum is mainly calcium sulphate dihydrate, it contains elevated levels of impurities, which originate from the source phosphate rock used in the phosphoric acid production. Among these impurities, radionuclides from 238U and 232Th decay series are of most concern due to their radiotoxicity. Other elements, such as rare earth elements (REE) and Ba are also enriched in the phosphogypsum. The bioavailability of radionuclides (226Ra, 210Pb and 232Th), rare earth elements and Ba to the surrounding aquatic system was evaluated by the application of sequential leaching of the phosphogypsum samples from the Brazilian phosphoric acid producers. The sequential extraction results show that most of the radium and lead are located in the "iron oxide" (non-CaSO4) fraction, and that only 13-18% of these radionuclides are distributed in the most labile fraction. Th, REE and Ba were found predominantly in the residual phase, which corresponds to a small fraction of the phosphate rock or monazite that did not react and to insoluble compounds such as sulphates, phosphates and silicates. It can be concluded that although all these elements are enriched in the phosphogypsum samples they are not associated with CaSO4 itself and therefore do not represent a threat to the surrounding aquatic environment.     

Use of rainwater for non-potable purposes in the Amazon

The Brazilian Amazon has about 69 % of available freshwater in Brazil, an amount that ends up creating the illusion that no lack of water and not lacking in the region, the large supply of this resource becomes a problem when it comes to the Management and Planning Water Resources in the Amazon, according to the wasteful use and lack of maintenance of stocks, compounded by the release of untreated wastewater. Speaking of water conservation programs in the Amazon a few decades ago and still today, with less intensity, is somewhat strange, given the large amount of water available and the culture of abundance. Thus, this research discusses the importance of the use of rainwater for non-potable purposes, since the potential for exploitation, throughout the year, due to this high rainfall in the Amazon region, ranging from, on average, 119.6 mm in months from November to 441.6 mm in March. The methods used for sizing of the reservoir were the Rippl and interactive, and economic viability checking done by the methods of net present value and discounted payback. As a result, there was a volume exceeding 1,000 m³ obtained by the method of Rippl, while the interactive method was a maximum of 75 m³. The economic viability presented fragile as a function of time to return exceeds the useful life of the utilization system for rainwater.