Pharmacopollution and Household Waste Medicine (HWM): how reverse logistics is environmentally important to Brazil

Pharmacopollution is a public health and environmental outcome of some active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC) dispersed through water and/or soil. Its most important sources are the pharmaceutical industry, healthcare facilities (e.g., hospitals), livestock, aquaculture, and households (patients’ excretion and littering). The last source is the focus of this article. Research questions are “What is the Household Waste Medicine (HWM) phenomenon?”, “How HWM and pharmacopollution are related?”, and “Why is a reverse logistic system necessary for HWM in Brazil?” This article followed the seven steps proposed by Rother (2007) for a systematic review based on the Cochrane Handbook and the National Health Service (NHS) Center for Reviews Dissemination (CDR) Report. The HWM phenomenon brings many environmental, public health, and, social challenges. The insufficient data is a real challenge to assessing potential human health risks and API concentrations. Therefore, the hazard of long-term exposure to low concentrations of pharmacopollutants and the combined effects of API mixtures is still uncertain. HWM are strongly related to pharmacopollution, as this review shows. The Brazilian HWM case is remarkable because it is the fourth pharmaceutical market (US$ 65,971 billion), with a wide number of private pharmacies and drugstores (3.3: 10,000 pharmacy/inhabitants), self-medication habits, and no national take-back program. The HWM generation is estimated in 56.6 g/per capita, or 10,800 t/year. The absence of a reverse logistics for HWM can lead to serious environmental and public health challenges. The sector agreement for HWM is currently under public consultation.     

Identification of protein biomarkers of mercury toxicity in fish

Bioaccumulative metals such as mercury are found in increasing amounts in fish and their consumers. In the region of the Madeira River, in the Brazilian Amazon, mercury (Hg) is a predominant contaminant in the aquatic ecosystem. There is therefore a need to find specific biomarkers of mercury toxicity in fish to monitor contaminations. Here, mercury-bound proteins were identified in the liver tissues of fishes Mylossoma duriventre and Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii. Mercury was quantified in liver tissue, pellets and protein spots by graphite furnace atomic absorption. Proteins were fractionated by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and identified by mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization. We identified nine proteins linked to mercury and that presented biomarker characteristics of mercury. Among the proteins identified, isoforms of parvalbumin, ubiquitin-40S ribosomal protein S27a, brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 1-associated protein 2-like protein 2 and betaine–homocysteine S-methyltransferase 1 are notable for having the molecular function of binding to metallic ions.     

Time Series Forecasting of Cyanobacteria Blooms in the Crestuma Reservoir (Douro River, Portugal) Using Artificial Neural Networks

In this work, time series neural networks were used to predict the occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in Crestuma Reservoir, which is an important potable water supply for the Porto region, located in the north of Portugal. These models can potentially be used to provide water treatment plant operators with an early warning for developing cyanobacteria blooms. Physical, chemical, and biological parameters were collected at Crestuma Reservoir from 1999 to 2002. The data set was then divided into three independent time series, each with a fortnightly periodicity. One training series was used to “teach” the neural networks to predict results. Another series was used to verify the results, and to avoid over-fitting of the data. An additional independently collected data series was then used to test the efficacy of the model for predicting the abundance of cyanobacteria. All of the models tested in this study incorporated a prediction time (look-ahead parameter) equal to the sampling interval (two weeks). Various lag periods, from 2 to 52 weeks, were also investigated. The best model produced in this study provided the following correlations between the target and forecast values in the training, verification, and validation series: 1.000 (P = 0.000), 0.802 (P = 0.000), and 0.773 (P = 0.001), respectively. By applying this model to the three-year data set, we were able to predict fluctuations in cyanobacteria abundance in the Crestuma Reservoir, with a high level of precision. By incorporating a lag-period of eight weeks, we were able to detect secondary fluctuations in cyanobacterial abundance over the annual cycle.     

Bacterial response to dynamic metal concentrations in the surface sediments of a solar saltern (Goa, India)

The Ribandar solar saltern, situated adjacent to the Mandovi estuary is influenced by the barge transport of ferromanganese ore to the Mormugao harbour (Arabian Sea). The current study focuses on the distribution of metals and related heterotrophic bacterial populations in the surface sediments (0–10 cm) of the Ribandar salterns (Goa, India) during the salt-making (January to May) and non salt-making seasons (August and November). The concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments ranged from 17.2?±?2.8 to 26.3?±?6.7 % Fe; 0.6?±?0.2 to 0.9?±?0.2 % Mn; 27.6?±?7.3 to 51?±?8.3 ppm Ni; 28.4?±?8.9 to 35.2?±?10.6 ppm Co; 44?±?21.6 to 62.8?±?23.6 ppm Zn; 0.1?±?0.01 ppm Cd and 1.7?±?0.1 to 2.6?±?0.7 ppm Pb and were much higher than those reported at the same site in a previous study by Kerkar (2004). Hg concentrations were below detection limits. In general, computation of “geoaccumulation index” revealed the sediments as ‘uncontaminated to moderately contaminated’ with Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Pb and Zn during the salt-making season. The abundance of metal-tolerant bacteria was comparatively restricted to the salt-making season and was higher than the non salt-making season. Fe-, Mn-, Ni-, Co- and Pb- (200 ppm) tolerant bacteria were retrieved and restricted to the surface sediments (0–5 cm), Cd and Fe being the two most regulatory elements governing bacterial populations in the non salt-making season. However, during the salt-making season, the concentration of Zn was found to be pivotal in regulating the counts of Fe-, Mn- and Ni-tolerant bacteria. In general, the strength of correlation of metals and microbes was higher in the non salt-making season as compared to the salt-making season. This would probably indicate metal-induced limitations in microbial populations in the non salt-making season and the absence of this effect during the salt-making season. In this study, we test the hypothesis that solar salterns behave as ecological sinks with a potential to transform native bacterial populations to metal-resistant strains, in relation to the dynamic changes in the surrounding metal concentrations.     

Assessment of groundwater quality in a region of endemic fluorosis in the northeast of Brazil

The aim of this study was to estimate the risk for caries and fluorosis in a desertification area, applying the calcium/fluoride concentration ratio of underground water and the quality of water in a selected geographical region. This study was performed in the municipality of São João do Rio do Peixe, located in the tropical semiarid lands of Brazil. A total of 111 groundwater samples were collected. Fluoride concentration varied from 0.11 to 9.33 mg/L. Thirty percent of all samples analyzed showed values above 1.5 mg/L, while 64 % were above the ideal limit of 0.7 mg/L. Mean calcium concentration was 47.6 mg/L, and 14.4 % of all samples presented values above the WHO acceptable limits. The proportional value of calcium/fluoride in water showed that only 12 % of the samples were suitable for dental caries prevention with minimal risk for dental fluorosis. Mapping of the fluoride distribution indicated that approximately 2,465 people could be affected by dental fluorosis and 1,057 people might be affected by skeletal fluorosis. It can be concluded that, in addition to fluoride, many water parameters were not suitable for the drinking water. Mapping out calcium/fluoride ratio may indicate areas of water suitability for caries control, whereas the fluoride concentration solely can indicate the areas with the risk for fluorosis. This approach can be relevant for health authorities for identifying communities where dental caries or dental fluorosis is prevalent.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons study in atmospheric fine and coarse particles using diagnostic ratios and receptor model in urban/industrial region

Atmospheric fine and coarse particles were collected in Teflon filters in three cities of the region of the Lower Sinos River Basin of Rio Grande do Sul in the year 2010. The filters were Soxhlet extracted, and 14 priority PAHs were analyzed using a gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC/MS). The principal emission sources of these compounds were assessed by using diagnostic ratios and receptor model: positive matrix factorization (PMF 3.0) of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The results of PAHs concentration for the studied year showed significant levels of high molecular weight (HMW) PAH, Ind, and BghiP, in PM_2.5 in the winter season, showing the influence of mobile sources. The application of receptor model PMF 3.0 revealed that the main sources of PAHs were vehicle fleet (both diesel and gasoline), followed by coal combustion, wood combustion, and resuspension of dust. The results of the receptor modeling are in agreement with the data obtained by the ratio diagnostic.     

Erosivity, surface runoff, and soil erosion estimation using GIS-coupled runoff–erosion model in the Mamuaba catchment, Brazil

This study evaluates erosivity, surface runoff generation, and soil erosion rates for Mamuaba catchment, sub-catchment of Gramame River basin (Brazil) by using the ArcView Soil and Water Assessment Tool (AvSWAT) model. Calibration and validation of the model was performed on monthly basis, and it could simulate surface runoff and soil erosion to a good level of accuracy. Daily rainfall data between 1969 and 1989 from six rain gauges were used, and the monthly rainfall erosivity of each station was computed for all the studied years. In order to evaluate the calibration and validation of the model, monthly runoff data between January 1978 and April 1982 from one runoff gauge were used as well. The estimated soil loss rates were also realistic when compared to what can be observed in the field and to results from previous studies around of catchment. The long-term average soil loss was estimated at 9.4 t ha^?1 year^?1; most of the area of the catchment (60 %) was predicted to suffer from a low- to moderate-erosion risk (<6 t ha^?1 year^?1) and, in 20 % of the catchment, the soil erosion was estimated to exceed >?12 t ha^?1 year^?1. Expectedly, estimated soil loss was significantly correlated with measured rainfall and simulated surface runoff. Based on the estimated soil loss rates, the catchment was divided into four priority categories (low, moderate, high and very high) for conservation intervention. The study demonstrates that the AvSWAT model provides a useful tool for soil erosion assessment from catchments and facilitates the planning for a sustainable land management in northeastern Brazil.     

Determination of total organic halogen (TOX) in humic acids after microwave-induced combustion

Chemically chlorinated organic matter as well as natural background humic acids contain significant amounts of organically bound halogens that must be determined for assessment of environmental pollution. In this work the use of ion chromatography (IC) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is proposed for the determination of total organic Cl, Br and I concentration in humic acids extracted from various forest soil horizons after a single digestion by microwave-induced combustion (MIC). Samples were pressed as pellets and combusted using 20 bar of oxygen and ammonium nitrate solution as igniter. Analytes were absorbed in diluted alkaline solution (50 mM (NH₄)₂CO₃) and a reflux step was applied after combustion to improve analyte recoveries (5 min, microwave power of 1400 W). The accuracy was evaluated using certified reference materials (CRM) and spiked samples. Using MIC the agreement with CRM values and spike recoveries was higher than 97% for all analytes. As an advantage over conventional procedures, using MIC it was possible to digest up to eight samples in only 25 min, obtaining a single solution suitable for all halogens determination in humic acids samples by different techniques (IC and ICP-MS). The limit of detection (3σ) for Cl, Br and I obtained by IC was 1.2, 2.5 and 4.3 μg g⁻¹ and by ICP-MS it was 1.4, 0.03 and 0.002 μg g⁻¹, respectively.     

Spirometric tests to assess the prevalence of childhood asthma at Portuguese rural areas: influence of exposure to high ozone levels

The study here reported aimed to: i) evaluate the prevalence of childhood asthma at a Portuguese rural area with high ozone concentrations through lung function tests, validating the previously estimated one assessed through questionnaires (similar to those of the ISAAC); ii) compare the achieved prevalence with the one reported at an unexposed area (with low ozone concentrations), aiming to evaluate the influence of exposure to high ozone levels; and iii) determine potential risk factors. Ninety-five of the original 478 children that completed the questionnaires, mentioned to have at least one of asthma symptoms (wheeze, dyspnea or cough) and were therefore evaluated by spirometry. FEV(1) was in average 89.7% for asthmatics and 102.8% for non-asthmatics. For the studied sample the risk was higher for girls with a tendency to be higher from 8 to 10 years old. Lifetime prevalence of childhood asthma at the exposed area was 9.2%. Children living at the exposed area had 3 times higher risk of having asthma than those living at the unexposed area. Considering that ozone concentrations were the main difference between both areas, it can be suggested that ozone pollution increased asthma prevalence. Nevertheless, it should be remarked that further studies should be done to confirm these results.