Air pollution exposure monitoring and estimation. Part VI. Ambient exposure of adults in an industrialised region

This paper presents methodology and results of a dynamic individual air pollution exposure model (DINEX) that calculates the hourly exposure for each adult in a panel study. Each of over 260 participants, through the use of a diary, provided information used in the model to calculate his/her personal, individualised exposure. The participants filled out the diary daily, hour by hour, over two, two month periods. The exposure assessment model coupled the diary information and results of an indoor/outdoor measurement program, with the results of dispersion modelling on an hourly basis for an industrial area in Norway. The estimated air pollution concentrations from the dispersion model, based on continuous meteorological measurements, were calibrated with air pollutant concentrations measured continuously.     

Determination of Ni(CO)4, Fe(CO)5, Mo(CO)6, and W(CO)6 in sewage gas by using cryotrapping gas chromatography inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Evidence for the occurrence of Ni(CO)4 in addition to Mo(CO)6 and W(CO)6 in fermentation gases from a municipal sewage treatment plant is presented for the first time. The gases were sampled at the top of the sewage sludge digester using Tedlar bags, and were analysed using cryotrapping followed by gas chromatography coupled with inductively coupled mass spectrometry (GC-ICP-MS). The use of an ICP-MS as an element-specific detector gives sufficiently low detection limits for metals and was coupled to a packed column gas chromatograph. This method provides information about the speciation of volatile transition metals in contrast to previously used methods for the determination of Ni(CO)4 in gas samples. The element-specific detection of three different isotopes (m/z 58, 60, 62) and the correspondence of the samples' retention times with those of the standard provided convincing evidence that Ni(CO)4 is present in the fermentation gas. The concentrations found were in the sub-ppb level, which is at least one order of magnitude lower than the threshold level of 1 ppb (v/v). In addition, Mo(CO)6 and W(CO)6 were also measured in the sub-ppb range in contrast to the absence of Fe(CO)5. The stabilities of Ni(CO)4, Fe(CO)5, and Mo(CO)6 were tested in a carbon monoxide atmosphere. In the presence of distilled water, the following order of stability was found after 11 weeks: Fe(CO)5 < Ni(CO)4 < Mo(CO)6. In the presence of an aqueous solution containing nickel, molybdenum, tungsten and iron, however, only Fe(CO)5 was significantly decomposed (< 0.3% recovery); Ni(CO)4 and Mo(CO)6 were stable after 11 weeks. No W(CO)6 was formed. The low stability of Fe(CO)5 in the presence of water could be the reason why no volatile iron compound was found in sewage gas. This study showed that GC-ICP-MS can be employed to identify species-specific traces of metal carbonyls in process gases such as sewage gas.     

Overstory mortality as an indicator of forest health in California

The interagency Forest Health Monitoring Program involves a network of about 4200 forest plots on a triangular grid across the United States. We present data on recent mortality of trees 27.9 cm diameter from the first three years of measurements in California (1992–1994). Three plot designs were used to collect data representative of a 1-ha stand at each site; the designs differed primarily in total area sampled (0.067, 0.4 and 1.0 ha). Approximately 50 sites were visited each year yielding a total of about 150. Field tallies showed few cases of recent mortality in the smallest plot size. Cumulative distribution functions of recent dead tree densities in the 0.067-ha plots differed significantly from those generated by tallies from entire 1-ha stands. We conclude that an area of 0.067 ha is unsuitable to assess and monitor overstory mortality in Pacific Coast forests.The U.S. government right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Study of the relationships between bone lead levels and its variation with time and the cumulative blood lead index, in a repeated bone lead survey

The study aims were to: (i) investigate long term human lead metabolism by measuring the change of lead concentration in the tibia and calcaneus; and (ii) assess whether improved industrial hygiene was resulting in a slow accumulation of lead in an exposed workforce. 109Cd excited K X-ray fluorescence was used to measure tibia lead and calcaneus lead concentrations in 101 workers in a secondary lead smelter. 51 subjects had had similar bone lead measurements 5 years previously. Most of the other subjects had been hired since the first survey. Measurements of whole blood lead were available for the large majority of subjects. Tibia lead concentrations fell significantly (p<0.001) in the 51 subjects with repeated bone lead measurements, from a mean of 39 microg Pb (g bone mineral)(-1) to 33 microg Pb (g bone mineral)(-1). The change correlated negatively with the initial tibia lead concentration, producing an estimate for an overall half-life of 15 years, with a 95% confidence interval of 9 to 55 years. Adding continuing lead exposure and recirculation of bone lead stores to the regression models produced half-life estimates of 12 and 9 years, respectively, for release of lead from the tibia. The repeat subjects showed no net change in calcaneus lead (64 microg Pb (g bone mineral)(-1) initially, 65 microg Pb (g bone mineral)(-1) 5 years later). Subjects not measured previously had average lead concentrations of 15 microg Pb (g bone mincral)(-1) in the tibia and 13 microg Pb (g bone mineral)(-1) in the calcaneus. The rate of clearance of lead from the tibia (9 to 15 years) is towards the more rapid end of previous estimates. The lack of a significant fall in the calcaneus lead was surprising. Attempts should be made to repeat this observation. If confirmed, it would have implications for models of lead metabolism. The relatively low lead concentrations in the non-repeat subjects are reassuring. However, observation after a longer period of employment would be desirable.     

Spatial analysis and mapping the annual mean concentrations of acidity and major ions in precipitation over the United Kingdom in 1986

The composition of precipitation is being monitored in collectors sited throughout the United Kingdom. In the first year, 1986, hydrogen ion, nitrate, ammonium and non-marine sulphate were measured in samples from 47 sites and annual mean concentrations determined. Spatial analysis based on Regionalized Variable Theory revealed autocorrelation in all four ions and reasonable bounded models were fitted to the sample variogram of all four. These were then used to estimate values of a fine mesh grid by simple kriging, and the estimates were then contoured. The estimation errors were similarly mapped, and both sets of maps are presented. The maps show that concentrations of these ions are greatest in eastern parts of the country, as expected from consideration of European emissions and weather patterns. For the first time estimation errors were also mapped and show how the network could be improved.     

The characteristics of size distribution of suspended particulates in the air for sulphates and selected metals in different areas and seasons

The characteristics of the distribution of particles by size were investigated for sulphates and selected metals (Pb, Fe, Mn, and Cu) in the air in two urban and an industrial area during the winter and summer periods using an Andersen cascade impactor.In the case of metals, but not sulphates, the character of the area affected the value of mass median diameter. Lowest values were obtained in a sparsely populated urban area, whereas in a densely populated urban area and in the industrial area the values were higher.In the industrial area a high correlation coefficient was found between sulphate and manganese, and between sulphate and lead, as well as a high value of the equivalent Mn²⁺/SO _inf4 ^sup2- ratio for the total sample. It may therefore be assumed that in the industrial area manganese produces a catalytic effect on SO₂ conversion to sulphate. Among the investigated metals lead stands out as a dominant cation which binds to the sulphate ion in the industrial and densely populated areas.     

Determination of the working level of radon/thoron mixtures by personal α-dosimeters and environmental α-monitors using gross α-counting

Analytical procedures are presented which permit the determination of the Working Levels of the radon and thoron progenies with personal α-dosimeters and α-particle environmental monitors, operating on time integrating principles, from gross α-counts. Experiments have been carried out in an underground uranium mine and in a radon/thoron environmental chamber, specially designed for calibration purposes, to verify theoretical data. In general, and notwithstanding a number of complicating factors, fair to good agreement has been found between theoretical and experimental data. Experimental values have been found to be lower than theoretical values, an observation which is partly ascribed to plate-out of decay products in the instrument's sampling heads.