Addressing Public Fears Related to the Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities

Recent catastrophic industrial accidents have left the public wary of most industrial facilities. Fearing illness and death from toxic releases, the public has opposed siting hazardous waste facilities in their locale. Associated with these concerns are fears of declining property values and a perceived reduction in the quality of life for a community. Recent political actions stemming from these fears have made siting these facilities an extremely unpopular and expensive process.

This paper presents a systematic, phased approach for performing a reliability and hazards analysis of a hazardous waste facility design. It also demonstrates how the results of a risk analysis can present an accurate "risk picture" of the facility for use in alleviating public fears. A typical analysis is outlined and methods that can be used to convey to the public the results of this type of risk analysis are explored.     

A Survey of Nitrogen Dioxide Levels Measured Inside Mobile Homes

As part of the California Mobile Home Study, over 250 mobile homes from throughout the state were monitored for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations. Week-long average measurements were taken with Palmes tubes in the kitchen and bedroom of each mobile home during the summer of 1984 and the winter of 1985. The study was conducted entirely by mail with the participants providing all the necessary information. Mobile homes using gas for cooking had significantly higher indoor NO₂ levels than those using electricity. Mobile homes located in the Los Angeles basin had significantly higher indoor NO₂ concentrations than did mobile homes in the rest of the state. Gas cooking, the inverse of the house volume and geographic location (as a surrogate of outdoor NO₂) were the most important variables identified by multiple linear regression.     

Serial batch leaching procedure for characterization of coal fly ash

Although many leaching methods have been used for various purposes by research groups, industries, and regulators, there is still a need for a simple but comprehensive approach to leaching coal utilization by-products and other granular materials in order to estimate potential release of heavy metals when these materials are exposed to natural fluids. A serial batch characterization method has been developed at the National Energy Technology Laboratory that can be completed in 2–3 days to serve as a screening tool. The procedure provides an estimate of cumulative metals release under varying pH conditions, and leaching the sample at increasing liquid/solid ratios can indicate the rate at which this process will occur. This method was applied to eight fly ashes, adapted to the acidic or alkaline nature of the ash. The leachates were analyzed for 30 elements. The test was run in quadruplicate, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) was used as a measure of method reproducibility. RSD values are between 0.02 and 0.70, with the majority of the RSD values less than 0.3. The serial batch leaching procedure was developed as a simple, relatively quick, yet comprehensive method of estimating the risk of heavy metal release from fly ash when it is exposed to natural fluids, such as acid rain or groundwater. Tests on a random selection of coal fly ashes have shown it to be a reasonably precise method for estimating the availability and long-term release of cations from fly ash.     

New hydroepidemiological models of indicator organisms and zoonotic pathogens in agricultural watersheds

Simple analytical models are derived to assess how a series of cattle animal farms affect the transport and fate of an indicator organism (Escherichia coli) and a zoonotic pathogen (Campylobacter) in a stream. Separate steady-state mass-balance models are developed and solved for the ultimate minimum and maximum concentrations for the two organisms. The E. coli model assumes that the organism is ubiquitous and abundant in the animals’ digestive tracts. In contrast, a simple dose-response model is employed to relate the Campylobacter prevalence to drinking water drawn from the stream. Because faecal indicators are commonly employed to assess the efficacy of best management practice (BMP) interventions, we also employ the models to assess how BMPs impact pathogen levels. The model provides predictions of (a) the relative removal efficacy for Campylobacter and (b) the prevalence of Campylobacter infection among farm animals after implementation of BMPs. Dimensionless numbers and simple graphs are developed to assess how prevalence is influenced by a number of factors including animal density and farm spacing. A significant outcome of this model development is that the numerous dimensional input and parameter variables are reduced to a group of just four dimensionless Campylobacter-related quantities, characterizing: animal density; in-stream attenuation; animal-to-animal transmission; and infection recovery. Calculations reveal that for some constellations of these four quantities there can be a greater-than-expected benefit in that the proportional reduction of stream Campylobacter concentrations post-BMP can substantially exceed the proportional reduction of concentrations of E. coli in that stream. In addition, a criterion for system sterility (i.e., the conditions required for the farm infection rate to decrease with downstream distance) is derived.     

Knowledge gain and behavioral change in citizen-science programs

Citizen-science programs are often touted as useful for advancing conservation literacy, scientific knowledge, and increasing scientific-reasoning skills among the public. Guidelines for collaboration among scientists and the public are lacking and the extent to which these citizen-science initiatives change behavior is relatively unstudied. Over two years, we studied 82 participants in a three-day program that included education about non-native invasive plants and collection of data on the occurrence of those plants. Volunteers were given background knowledge about invasive plant ecology and trained on a specific protocol for collecting invasive plant data. They then collected data and later gathered as a group to analyze data and discuss responsible environmental behavior with respect to invasive plants. We tested whether participants without experience in plant identification and with little knowledge of invasive plants increased their knowledge of invasive species ecology, participation increased knowledge of scientific methods, and participation affected behavior. Knowledge of invasive plants increased on average 24%, but participation was insufficient to increase understanding of how scientific research is conducted. Participants reported increased ability to recognize invasive plants and increased awareness of effects of invasive plants on the environment, but this translated into little change in behavior regarding invasive plants. Potential conflicts between scientific goals, educational goals, and the motivation of participants must be considered during program design.     

Substrate concentration and enzyme allocation can affect rates of microbial decomposition

A large proportion of the world's carbon is stored as soil organic matter (SOM). However, the mechanisms regulating the stability of this SOM remain unclear. Recent work suggests that SOM may be stabilized by mechanisms other than chemical recalcitrance. Here, we show that the mineralization rate of starch, a plant polymer commonly found in litter and soil, is concentration dependent, such that its decomposition rate can be reduced by as much as 50% when composing less than approximately 10% of SOM. This pattern is largely driven by low activities of starch-degrading enzymes and low inducibility of enzyme production by microbial decomposers. The same pattern was not observed for cellulose and hemicellulose degradation, possibly because the enzymes targeting these substrates are expressed at constitutively high levels. Nevertheless, given the heterogeneous distribution of SOM constituents, our results suggest a novel low-concentration constraint on SOM decomposition that is independent of chemical recalcitrance. These results may help explain the stability of at least some SOM constituents, especially those that naturally exist in relatively low concentrations in the soil environment.     

Light-stress avoidance mechanisms in a Sphagnum-dominated wet coastal Arctic tundra ecosystem in Alaska

The Arctic experiences a high-radiation environment in the summer with 24-hour daylight for more than two months. Damage to plants and ecosystem metabolism can be muted by overcast conditions common in much of the Arctic. However, with climate change, extreme dry years and clearer skies could lead to the risk of increased photoxidation and photoinhibition in Arctic primary producers. Mosses, which often exceed the NPP of vascular plants in Arctic areas, are often understudied. As a result, the effect of specific environmental factors, including light, on these growth forms is poorly understood. Here, we investigated net ecosystem exchange (NEE) at the ecosystem scale, net Sphagnum CO2 exchange (NSE), and photoinhibition to better understand the impact of light on carbon exchange from a moss-dominated coastal tundra ecosystem during the summer season 2006. Sphagnum photosynthesis showed photoinhibition early in the season coupled with low ecosystem NEE. However, later in the season, Sphagnum maintained a significant CO2 uptake, probably for the development of subsurface moss layers protected from strong radiation. We suggest that the compact canopy structure of Sphagnum reduces light penetration to the subsurface layers of the moss mat and thereby protects the active photosynthetic tissues from damage. This stress avoidance mechanism allowed Sphagnum to constitute a significant percentage (up to 60%) of the ecosystem net daytime CO2 uptake at the end of the growing season despite the high levels of radiation experienced.     

Application of statistical modeling to optimize a coastal water quality monitoring program

The long-term water quality monitoring program implemented by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority in 1992 is extensive and has provide substantial understanding of the seasonality of the waters in both Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay and the response to improvements in effluent quality and offshore transfer of the effluent in September 2000. The monitoring program was designed with limited knowledge of spatial and temporal variability and long-term trends within the system. This led to an extensive spatial and temporal sampling program. The data through 2003 showed high correlation within physical parameters measured (e.g., salinity, dissolved oxygen) and in biological measures such as chlorophyll fluorescence. To address the potential sampling redundancies in the measurement program, an assessment of the impact of reduced levels of monitoring on the ability to make water quality decisions was completed. The optimization was conducted by applying statistical models that took into account whether there was evidence of a seasonal pattern in the data. The optimization used model survey average readings to identify temporal fixed effects, model survey-average-corrected individual station readings to identify spatial fixed effects, corrected the individual station readings for temporal and spatial fixed effects and derived a correlation model for the corrected data, and applied the correlation model to characterize the correlation of annual average readings from reduced monitoring programs with true parameter levels. Reductions in the number of sampling stations were found less detrimental to the quality of the data for annual decision-making than reductions in the number of surveys per year, although there is less of a difference in this regard for dissolved oxygen than there is for chlorophyll. The analysis led to recommendations for a substantially lower monitoring effort with minimal loss of information. The recommendation supported an annual budget savings of approximately $183,000. Most of the savings was from fewer surveys as approximately $21,000 came from the reduction in the number of stations monitored from 21 to 7 and associated laboratory analytical costs.     

Integrating Remote Sensing Approach with Pollution Monitoring Tools for Aquatic Ecosystem Risk Assessment and Managment: A Case Study of Lake Victoria(UGANDA)

Aquatic ecosystems around the world, lake, estuaries and coastal areas are increasingly impacted by anthropogenic pollutants through different sources such as agricultural, industrial and urban discharges, atmospheric deposition and terrestrial drainage. Lake Victoria is the second largest lake in the world and the largest tropical lake. Bordered by Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya, it provides a livelihood for millions of Africans in the region. However, the lake is under threat from eutrophication, a huge decline in the number of native fish species caused by several factors including loss of biodiversity, over fishing and pollution has been recently documented. Increasing usage of pesticides and insecticides in the adjacent agricultural areas as well as mercury contamination from processing of gold ore on the southern shores are currently considered among the most emergent phenomena of chemical contamination in the lake. By the application of globally consistent and comprehensive geospatial data-sets based on remote sensing integrated with information on heavy metals accumulation and insecticides exposure in native and alien fish populations, the present study aims at assessing the environmental risk associated to the contamination of the Lake Victoria water body on fish health, land cover distribution, biodiversity and the agricultural area surrounding the lake. By the elaboration of Landsat 7 TM data of November 2002 and Landsat 7 TM 1986 we have calculated the agriculture area which borders the Lake Victoria bay, which is an upland plain. This process has greatly enhanced nutrient loading to the soil, which is subsequently transported to the lake by rain or as dry fall. All the data has been insert in the Geographical information System (ARCGIS) to be upgraded and consulted. Heavy metals in fish fillets showed concentrations rather low except for mercury being higher than others as already described in previous investigations. In the same tissue, cholinesterases activity (ChE) as an indicator of insecticides exposure showed significant differences among fish species in both activity and sensitivity of selected inhibitor insecticides. This integrated approach aims at identifying and quantifying selected aquatic environmental issues which integrated with monitoring techniques such as contaminant concentrations and biological responses to insecticides exposure in fish populations will provide a scientific basis for aquatic zones management and assist in policy formulations at the national and international levels.     

The response of hydrophobic organics and potential toxicity in streams to urbanization of watersheds in six metropolitan areas of the United States

Semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) were deployed in streams along a gradient of urban land-use intensity in and around six metropolitan areas: Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina; and Denver-Fort Collins, Colorado, in 2003; and Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas; Milwaukee-Green Bay, Wisconsin; and Portland, Oregon, in 2004 to examine relations between percent urban land cover in watersheds and the occurrence, concentrations, and potential toxicity of hydrophobic compounds. Of the 142 endpoints measured in SPMD dialysates, 30 were significantly (alpha = 0.05) related to the percent of urban land cover in the watersheds in at least one metropolitan area. These 30 endpoints included the aggregated measures of the total number of compounds detected and relative toxicity (Microtox(R) and P450RGS assays), in addition to the concentrations of 27 individual hydrophobic compounds. The number of compounds detected, P450RGS assay values, and the concentrations of pyrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were significantly related to percent urban land cover in all six metropolitan areas. Pentachloroanisole, the most frequently detected compound, was significantly related to urban land cover in all metropolitan areas except Dallas-Fort Worth. Petrogenic PAHs and dibenzofurans were positively related to percent urban land cover in Atlanta, Raleigh-Durham, Denver, and Milwaukee-Green Bay. Results for other endpoints were much more variable. The number of endpoints significantly related to urban land cover ranged from 6 in Portland to 21 Raleigh-Durham. Based on differences in the number and suite of endpoints related to urban intensity, these results provide evidence of differences in factors governing source strength, transport, and/or fate of hydrophobic compounds in the six metropolitan areas studied. The most consistent and significant results were that bioavailable, aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists increase in streams as basins become urbanized. Potential toxicity mediated by this metabolic pathway is indicated as an important factor in the response of aquatic biota to urbanization.