Environmental threats to buried archaeological remains

The last century's environmental pollution has created health problems, acidification of ground and lakes, and serious damage to our cultural heritage. Outdoor monuments suffer from this pollution, but so do buried archaeological remains. However, research on the deterioration of archaeological artifacts underground has so far been limited, and it is important to draw attention to this neglected field. This article presents results obtained at the Swedish National Heritage Board on the degradation of archaeological objects of bronze and iron and of bones from prehistoric graves, materials of which seem to be most affected by pollutants. The investigation methods, which were employed, are described. Other relevant studies are briefly reviewed. It is obvious that the deterioration rate of archaeological artifacts, especially of inorganic materials, has accelerated in recent years, and that this increased deterioration to a large part can be attributed to anthropogenic pollution. Regions that might be endangered are exemplified.     

Anaerobic degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in liquid and soil slurry systems

Gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH or lindane), one of the most commonly used insecticides, has been mainly used in agriculture. Organochloride compounds are known to be highly toxic and persistent, causing serious water and soil pollution. The objective of the present study is the evaluation of the anaerobic degradation of alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta-HCH in liquid and slurry cultures. The slurry system with anaerobic sludge appears as an effective alternative in the detoxification of polluted soils with HCH, as total degradation of the four isomers was attained. While alpha- and gamma-HCH disappeared after 20-40d, the most recalcitrant isomers: beta- and delta-HCH were only degraded after 102d. Intermediate metabolites of HCH degradation as pentachlorocyclohexane (PCCH), tetrachlorocyclohexene (TCCH), tri-, di- and mono-chlorobenzenes were observed during degradation time.     

Effects of nutrient and temperature on degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in contaminated sub-Antarctic soil

Mesocosm studies using sub-Antarctic soil artificially contaminated with diesel or crude oil were conducted in Kerguelen Archipelago (49 degrees 21' S, 70 degrees 13' E) in an attempt to evaluate the potential of a bioremediation approach in high latitude environments. All mesocosms were sampled on a regular basis over six months period. Soils responded positively to temperature increase from 4 degrees C to 20 degrees C, and to the addition of a commercial oleophilic fertilizer containing N and P. Both factors increased the hydrocarbon-degrading microbial abundance and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) degradation. In general, alkanes were faster degraded than polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). After 180 days, total alkane losses of both oils reached 77-95% whereas total PAHs never exceeded 80% with optimal conditions at 10 degrees C and fertilizer added. Detailed analysis of naphthalenes, dibenzothiophenes, phenanthrenes, and pyrenes showed a clear decrease of their degradation rate as a function of the size of the PAH molecules. During the experiment there was only a slight decrease in the toxicity, whereas the concentration of TPH decreased significantly during the same time. The most significant reduction in toxicity occurred at 4 degrees C. Therefore, bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sub-Antarctic soil appears to be feasible, and various engineering strategies, such as heating or amending the soil can accelerate hydrocarbon degradation. However, the residual toxicity of contaminated soil remained drastically high before the desired cleanup is complete and it can represent a limiting factor in the bioremediation of sub-Antarctic soil.     

Influence of pre-treatment step on PAHs analyses in contaminated soils

There is no specific standardization for the pre-treatment of a soil sample for PAHs analyses. The ISO/FDIS 14507 method for soil quality gives a guidance for sample pre-treatment before measurement of organic contaminants in soil. It refers to cryogenic crushing which is not so easy to carry out. So, analysts lead to develop in house methods which can be very different from a laboratory to another and can involve deviations in the pollution quantification. This study has explored different ways of drying, grinding and sieving in order to determine the influence of the soil sample handling on the measured pollutant concentration. It appears that the influence of pre-treatment depends on the soil nature and on the PAHs distribution. As a conclusion, it is advised "light" drying ways like air drying or drying at 40 degrees C in a drying oven instead of more "drastic" ways (freeze-drying, cryogenic crushing) which can induce some losses. Crushing and sieving are also recommended for more reproducible measures.     

Interpretation of heavy metal data from mussel by use of multivariate classification techniques

Different strategies of multivariate analysis of metals concentrations (Mn, Fe, Ni, V, Co, Cu, Cd, Hg, Pb, Na, K) in mussel samples from different spanish markets are used to interpret a data base and identify differences between species and origin of the samples. Principal Component Analysis and Potential curves are applied to properly classify unknown samples from representative mussels samples (Mytilus edulis and Perna canaliculus). Also, Principal Components Analysis is used as display method to visualize the relation between the variables and objects of interest.     

Measurements of selected PCBs in open urban ambient air of Madrid (Spain)

The focus of this study was to characterize the concentration levels of selected PCBs and compare them to compiled data in order to contribute to the international database. The sampling site is located in the outskirts of Madrid and can be considered an open urban area. 32 samples of air were taken from February 1998 to June 1998 by using a high volume air sampler. Glass fiber filters and polyurethane foam (PUF) were used to collect the paniculate and gas phase material, respectively. PUF plugs were Soxhlet extracted and filters were ultrasonically extracted by using pesticide-grade hexane and dichloromethane, respectively. The cleanup procedure was carried out on a florisil column with hexane and hexane/dichloromethane as elution solvents. GC/MS in a selected ion monitoring mode was used for quantification and 29 selected PCBs congeners were analyzed.     

Do differences between metal body residues reflect the differences between effects for Chironomus riparius exposed to different sediments?

Sediment characteristics are well known to interfere with toxicity, mainly through differences in terms of bioaccumulation. Here, with chironomids exposed to zinc in an artificial and a field sediment, we investigated the differences of zinc accumulation and of effects on the life cycle, at individual and population level. We used biology and energy-based modeling to analyze the data at all the levels of biological organization. This permits a reliable estimation of thresholds values for tissue residues. Differences in zinc tissue residues accounted for most of the differences between the results for both sediments (a factor of 11 for differences from 20 to 100 depending on the parameter which is considered). Taking into account accumulation and background variability, the differences relative to thresholds could be accounted for. However, it appeared that, once the threshold was passed, effects were much more pronounced for organisms exposed to artificial sediment compared to field sediment. We concluded that some sediment characteristics can enhance toxicity, in addition to their influence on the compound accumulation, even if the latter was the major source of differences in our study.     

The influence of radical architecture on cadmium bioaccumulation in the black mangrove, Avicennia germinans L

Two groups of Avicennia germinans plants with differences in the radical architecture were exposed under hydroponic conditions to 95ppm of cadmium (Cd) for a period of 24h. Later, Cd concentration in roots, stems and leaves was determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Our results showed that, for both groups of plants, the roots accumulated higher concentration of Cd as compared to stems and leaves, though, the plants of group B displayed enhanced radical architecture, better growth performance, and lower Cd concentration as compared to plants of group A. In contrast, low values of leaves/roots Cd transportation index, and bioaccumulation factor were found in plants of group B. These results suggest that the higher radical architecture developed in plants of group B might better adjust the uptake of Cd as a result of an integrated network of multiple response processes for instances, production of organic acids, antioxidative replay, cell-wall lignification and/or suberization. Further studies will be focused in understanding the role of the radical system in mangrove plants with the rhizosphere activation and root adsorption to soil Cd under natural conditions.     

Economic viability and optimization of solar microgrids with hybrid storage in a non-interconnected zone in Colombia

Environment, Development and Sustainability - A developing country that does not have adequate energy solutions in non-interconnected zones (ZNIs) undoubtedly experiences adverse effects in terms...