Polyurethane foam (PUF) disks passive air samplers: wind effect on sampling rates

Different passive sampler housings were evaluated for their wind dampening ability and how this might translate to variability in sampler uptake rates. Polyurethane foam (PUF) disk samplers were used as the sampling medium and were exposed to a PCB-contaminated atmosphere in a wind tunnel. The effect of outside wind speed on PUF disk sampling rates was evaluated by exposing polyurethane foam (PUF) disks to a PCB-contaminated air stream in a wind tunnel over air velocities in the range 0 to 1.75 m s-1. PUF disk sampling rates increased gradually over the range 0-0.9 m s-1 at approximately 4.5-14.6 m3 d-1 and then increased sharply to approximately 42 m3 d-1 at approximately 1.75 m s-1 (sum of PCBs). The results indicate that for most field deployments the conventional 'flying saucer' housing adequately dampens the wind effect and will yield approximately time-weighted air concentrations.     

Concentrations and source characteristics of airborne carbonyl compounds measured outside urban residences

This paper presents the analysis of ambient air concentrations of 10 carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) measured in the yards of 87 residences in the city of Elizabeth, NJ, throughout 1999-2001. Most of these residences were measured twice in different seasons; the sampling duration was 48 hr each time. The authors observed higher concentrations for most of the measured carbonyl compounds on warmer days, reflecting larger contributions of photochemical reactions on warmer days. The estimated contributions of photochemical production varied substantially across the measured carbonyl compounds and could be as high as 60%. Photochemical activity, however, resulted in a net loss for formaldehyde. The authors used stepwise multiple linear regression models to evaluate the impact of traffic sources and meteorological conditions on carbonyl concentrations using the data collected on colder days (with lower photochemical activities). They found that the concentrations of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, propionaldehyde, crotonaldehyde, benzaldehyde, glyoxal, and methylglyoxal significantly decreased with increasing distance between a measured residence and one or more major roadways. They also found significant negative associations between concentrations for most of the measured carbonyl compounds and each of the following meteorological parameters: mixing height, wind speed, and precipitation.     

Effects of scrubber by-product-stabilized dairy lagoon sludge on growth and physiological responses of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

Brick manufacturing industries are challenged to comply with clean air mandates. Dry air scrubbers have been used to remove acid gases from the exhaust air from brick manufacturing plants. The use of dry air scrubbers results in the production of large quantities of an alkaline powder by-product. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of using dairy lagoon sludge stabilized with the scrubber by-product as a soil amendment. Lagoon sludge was stabilized with scrubber by-product at an application rate of 20 gl(-1). The sludge-scrubber by-product mixture was applied to a sandy loam soil to provide amendments ranging between 28 and 168 kg of plant available nitrogen (PAN)/ha for the growth of Helianthus annuus (sunflower). Use of the sludge-scrubber by-product mixture as a nitrogen fertilizer did not adversely affect sunflower seedling emergence; however, significantly higher (p<0.05) plant volume indices, leaf area, dry shoot and root masses, and seed yields were obtained for mature plants grown in sludge-treated soil relative to the control or fertilizer treatment. The sludge amendment did not severely impact gas exchange or chlorophyll a fluorescence of the plants and nutrient content of the sunflower tissues was generally within a sufficient range. The increased growth and yield of sunflower plants indicated the potential of the sludge-scrubber by-product mixture as a soil amendment in agricultural crop production.     

Modeling patterns of breakdown (or archetypes) of human and organizational processes in accidents using system dynamics

Systems approaches to safety have received growing attention in modern accident investigation techniques (e.g., STAMP, Accimap) with the emphasis shifted to the organizational dynamics (or archetypes) that may lead to an erosion of defenses and a drift out of the safety margins. Although the literature contains many applications of archetypes and system dynamics to safety, this richness comes at a cost of learning. It has become very difficult for safety practitioners to integrate the diverse studies of system dynamics with their diverging models. To provide a practical tool of system dynamics in accident investigation, this article reviews earlier studies and integrates them as a classification of patterns of breakdown (or archetypes) of both human and organizational processes on the basis of two control models, that is, the Extended Control Model (ECOM) and the Viable System Model (VSM). In this article, archetypes are represented as variants of two generic templates of performance which exploit many elements of complexity theory and system control. Apart from providing a practical tool to safety practitioners to access the literature on archetypes, the generic templates of ECOM and VSM can be used in building simulators of individual and organizational processes for risk analysis.     

Improving collection efficiency through remote monitoring of charity assets

Collection costs associated with servicing a major UK charity’s donation banks and collecting unsold goods from their retail shops can account for up to 20% of the overall income gained. Bank and shop collections are commingled and are typically made on fixed days of the week irrespective of the amounts of materials waiting to be collected. Using collection records from a major UK charity, this paper considers what vehicle routing and scheduling benefits could accrue if bank and shop servicing requirements were monitored, the former using remote sensing technology to allow more proactive collection scheduling. A vehicle routing and scheduling algorithm employing tabu search methods was developed, and suggested time and distance savings of up to 30% over the current fixed schedules when a minimum bank and shop fill level of between 50% and 60% was used as a collection trigger. For the case study investigated, this led to a potential revenue gain of 5% for the charity and estimated CO₂ savings of around 0.5 tonnes per week across the fleet of six heterogeneous vehicles.     

Characteristics of natural salt licks located in the Colombian Amazon foothills

Salt licks are key places for the ecological dynamics of wildlife communities around the world and are locations where animals develop geophagical behaviours. Geophagy is a method for animals to supplement their diets or facilitate their digestive processes and is related to the health of individuals and populations. This study characterises a series of salt licks located in the Colombian Amazon foothills and describes their structural, mineralogical and physicochemical properties, as well as the fauna that visit these locations. The results are analysed in reference to the geological characteristics of the study area and in relation to the role of the salt lick in the nutritional ecology of the Amazonian fauna. Located in the study area are two types of salt licks that are significantly different in composition. These salt licks are located in an area where young geological materials have been exposed. The characteristics of the salt licks supports the hypothesis that they are used to solve nutritional problems that result from herbivorous diets. The clear importance of salt licks in the ecology of several Amazonian animal species emphasises the need to prioritise conservation areas by maximising the complementarities of salt lick sites.     

Changes in maternal blood concentrations of selected essential and toxic elements during and after pregnancy

The objective of this study was to investigate changes in the levels of toxic and essential elements in maternal blood during pregnancy and subsequently. A subset of 211 pregnant women from the North Norwegian Mother-and-Child Study was included. Blood samples were collected during the 2(nd) trimester (P1) and postpartum (day 3, P2; and 6 weeks, P3) in different regions of northern Norway, and were analyzed for a suite of 10 selected elements. The latter feature three general but distinct concentration patterns across the three collection periods, namely: progressive increase [Group 1: As, Cd (non-smokers only), Mn, Pb and Zn]; V-shaped, with a minimum at P2 [Group 2: Cd (smokers), Hg, Mo and Se]; and downward V, with a maximum at P2 [Group 3: Co and Cu]. These trends are interpreted in the context of underlying metabolic, hematological and physiological changes that occur in mothers, as well the biochemistry and accumulation preferences of these elements within the whole blood compartment and breast milk. Implications for biomonitoring strategies are discussed. In a multivariable analysis of the P1 data, fish consumption was a robust positive predictor for Hg (p < 0.02), As (p < 0.01) and Se (p ≤ 0.001) blood concentrations, multivitamin intake for Se (p < 0.001), and parity for Co (p < 0.002); age reached significance only for Hg (p < 0.001). An inverse association was observed between parity and Hg (p < 0.05). For the other elements, predictor patterns were not evident.     

Darwin's special difficulty: the evolution of “neuter insects” and current theory

In the Origin of Species, Darwin discussed several challenges that worker insects presented to his theory of natural selection. Complex instincts such as building of combs of hexagonal cells were one problem and were explained by showing plausible intermediate stages. A more serious challenge was posed by the multiple worker castes seen in many ants. How could sterile individuals continue to evolve? A careful reading of the Origin suggests that Darwin was not primarily concerned by the evolution of worker sterility itself, which he considered a minor difficulty. Some modern commentaries on Darwin and insect workers seem to be cases of present interests interfering with the interpretation of the past. From a modern perspective, the evolution of a worker caste, and its corollary altruism, are evolutionary puzzles inasmuch as natural selection normally favors greater, not lesser, individual reproduction. These puzzles were resolved by Hamilton's theory of inclusive fitness. We now have a good functional understanding of how natural selection can cause both the origin of workers and their elaboration into greater levels of sterility and multiple morphological castes. Mechanistic understanding of morphological castes is also increasing via research into alternative developmental pathways. When the Origin was written, genetics did not exist and it would have been virtually impossible for Darwin to elaborate such ideas. However, the Origin probably addressed the main questions in the minds of Victorian readers in relation to insect workers. Darwin was prescient in having insights with close relationships to modern-day interests and the key principles involved, including kinship and benefits to the colony, even if these are not exact precursors to modern thinking.