Ambient Air Quality and Automotive Emission Control

This paper is concerned with uncertainties involved in projecting ambient air quality. Ambient air quality was projected by assuming a linear dependence on estimated future emissions. Future automotive emissions were estimated by a method recommended by EPA. Projections were made for the locations reported to have the highest ambient air concentrations of each pollutant; Chicago for carbon monoxide and the California South Coast Air Basin for hydrocarbon and oxidant. The sensitivity of the projections to several input parameters was determined.

The uncertainty in projection of air quality due to the use of a maximum, once-per-year concentration is large. For example, the reduction in total CO emissions in Chicago in 1975, necessary to meet the air quality standard, was as high as 68% or as low as 26%, depending on whether the historic high, 8 hr average concentration of 44 ppm or the 1970 maximum of 21 ppm was used. The effects of uncertainties in growth rates and fraction of emissions attributed to the automobile were also sizeable. Differences in automotive growth rate had a large near-term effect on projected concentrations, while differences in nonautomotive growth rate or fraction of emissions attributed to the automobile had a large long-term effect. The effect of 1975 interim automotive emission standards on projected air quality was negligible when compared with projected air quality based on the previous Federal automotive emission standards for 1975.     

A Quantitative Evaluation of the Pollutant Standards Index

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has recommended a daily air pollution index for use by State and local air pollution control agencies— the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI). The new index makes use of "segmented linear functions" which convert measured concentrations of each air pollutant into a normalized number. The overall index is reported for the pollutant with the maximum subindex value, or the "critical pollutant."     

Particle Concentrations Inside a Tavern Before and After Prohibition of Smoking: Evaluating the Performance of an Indoor Air Quality Model

Abstract

Measurements were made of respirable suspended particles (RSP) in a large sports tavern on 26 dates over approximately two years in which smoking was allowed, followed by measurements on 50 dates during the year after smoking was prohibited. The smoking prohibition occurred without warning when the city government passed a regulation restricting smoking in local restaurants and taverns. Two follow-up field surveys, consisting of 24 and 26 visits, respectively, were conducted to measure changes in RSP levels after smoking was prohibited. No decrease in tavern attendance was evident after smoking was prohibited. During the smoking period, the average RSP concentration was 56.8 |ig/m3 above the outdoor concentrations, but the average abruptly dropped to 5.9 ug/m3 above outdoor levels—a 90% decrease— on 24 visits in the first two months immediately after smoking was prohibited (first follow-up study). A second set of 26 follow-up visits (matched by time of day, day of the week, and season to the earlier smoking visits) yielded an average concentration of 12.9 jig/m3 above the outdoor levels, or an overall decrease in the average RSP concentration of 77% compared with the smoking period. During the smoking period, RSP concentrations more than 100 ug/m3 above outdoor levels occurred on 30.7% of the visits. During the 50 nonsmoking visits, 92% of the RSP concentrations were less than 20 u,g/m3 above outdoor levels, and no concentration exceeded 100 ug/m3 on any nonsmoking visit. The data show there was a striking decline in indoor RSP concentrations in the tavern after smoking was prohibited. The indoor concentration observed in the nonsmoking periods (9.1 u.g/m3 average for all nonsmoking visits) was attributed to cooking and resuspended dust. A mathematical model based on the mass balance equation was developed that included smoking, cooking, and resuspended dust. Using cigarette emission rates from the literature, the tavern volume of 521 m3, and the air exchange rate measured in the tavern under conditions regarded by the management as "typical," the model predicted 42.5 ug/m3 for an average smoking count of 1.17 cigarettes, which compared favorably with the average concentration of 43.9 ng/m3 observed in the tavern. A regression analysis indicated that the active smoking count explained over 50% of the variation of the RSP concentrations measured on different dates. The mathematical model can be used to estimate RSP concentrations from smoking in other similar taverns under similar conditions.     

A Tracer Study of Headspace Ventilation in a Collector Sewer

ABSTRACT

A field-scale tracer test was conducted to evaluate in-situ ventilation rates in a major collector sewer. The sewer under study was ~11 km long and ranged from 0.61 to 2.1 m in diameter. For the purposes of the tracer testing, the collector was divided into four reaches, each of which was tested individually. The tracer test involved injecting a measured volume of CO gas into a manhole over a short time period. CO concentrations were then measured in the collector headspace at selected manholes along the length of the reach.

The technique employed successfully measured average headspace velocities over extended lengths of the collector. In a section that had a relatively stagnant headspace, ~1.1 km of sewer could be evaluated, with substantial tracer loss attributed to losses to manholes. In a section of the sewer with elevated headspace velocities, a section ~7.0 km long was successfully tested with one injection of tracer gas. The velocities observed in the collector varied substantially with time and location in the collector. The lowest velocities measured were in the upstream sections, with a minimum observed value of 3.8 m/min. The highest velocities were observed in the downstream sections, with a maximum value of 31.5 m/min. The presence of a substantial drop structure appeared to reduce the headspace velocity in the upstream reach. In general, there was an increasing trend in gas-phase flows with distance along the length of the collector. Flows at the discharge end of the collector were almost 2 orders of magnitude greater than those at the beginning.     

Effectiveness of emission control technologies for auxiliary engines on ocean-going vessels

Large auxiliary engines operated on ocean-going vessels in transit and at berth impact the air quality of populated areas near ports. This paper presents new information on the comparison of emission ranges from three similar engines and the effectiveness of three control technologies: switching to cleaner burning fuels, operating in the low oxides of nitrogen (NOx) mode, and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). In-use measurements of gaseous (NOx, carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2]) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5; total and speciated) emissions were made on three auxiliary engines on post-PanaMax class container vessels following the International Organization for Standardization-8178-1 protocol. The in-use NOx emissions for the MAN B&W 7L32/40 engine family vary from 15 to 21.1 g/kW-hr for heavy fuel oil and 8.9 to 19.6 g/kW-hr for marine distillate oil. Use of cleaner burning fuels resulted in NOx reductions ranging from 7 to 41% across different engines and a PM2.5 reduction of up to 83%. The NOx reductions are a consequence of fuel nitrogen content and engine operation; the PM2.5 reduction is attributed to the large reductions in the hydrated sulfate and organic carbon (OC) fractions. As expected, operating in the low-NOx mode reduced NOx emissions by approximately 32% and nearly doubled elemental carbon (EC) emissions. However, PM2.5 emission factors were nearly unchanged because the EC emission factor is only approximately 5% of the total PM2.5 mass. SCR reduced the NOx emission factor to less than 2.4 g/kW-hr, but it increased the PM2.5 emissions by a factor of 1.5-3.8. This increase was a direct consequence of the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfate emissions on the SCR catalyst. The EC and OC fractions of PM2.5 reduced across the SCR unit.     

Evolutionary algorithm for vehicle driving cycle generation

Modeling transit bus emissions and fuel economy requires a large amount of experimental data over wide ranges of operational conditions. Chassis dynamometer tests are typically performed using representative driving cycles defined based on vehicle instantaneous speed as sequences of "microtrips", which are intervals between consecutive vehicle stops. Overall significant parameters of the driving cycle, such as average speed, stops per mile, kinetic intensity, and others, are used as independent variables in the modeling process. Performing tests at all the necessary combinations of parameters is expensive and time consuming. In this paper, a methodology is proposed for building driving cycles at prescribed independent variable values using experimental data through the concatenation of "microtrips" isolated from a limited number of standard chassis dynamometer test cycles. The selection of the adequate "microtrips" is achieved through a customized evolutionary algorithm. The genetic representation uses microtrip definitions as genes. Specific mutation, crossover, and karyotype alteration operators have been defined. The Roulette-Wheel selection technique with elitist strategy drives the optimization process, which consists of minimizing the errors to desired overall cycle parameters. This utility is part of the Integrated Bus Information System developed at West Virginia University.     

Application of passive sorbent tube and canister samplers for volatile organic compounds at refinery fenceline locations in Whiting,Indiana

Select volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ambient air were measured at four fenceline sites at a petroleum refinery in Whiting, IN, using modified EPA Method 325 A/B with passive tubes and EPA Compendium Method TO-15 with canister samplers. One-week, time-integrated samplers were deployed for 8 weeks with tubes and canister samplers deployed in duplicate. Good precision was obtained from the duplicate tubes (<7%) and duplicate canisters (≤10%) for BTEX, perchloroethylene, and styrene. The tubes yielded statistically significantly higher concentrations than canisters for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and m,p-xylene. However, all differences were estimated to be <0.1 ppbv. No concentration differences among the four Whiting sites were found for any of the VOCs.

Implications: Recently enacted EPA Methods 325A/B use passive-diffusive tube samplers to measure benzene at refinery fenceline locations. This pilot study presents VOC data applying a modified version of EPA Method 325 A/B and its comparison to EPA Compendium Method TO-15 canister samplers at four refinery fenceline sites. The findings from this study provide additional confidence in application of the tube method at refineries to ascertain VOC source influence since tube and canister samplers were comparable and good precision was obtained from duplicate sampling for both methods. No overall difference in these reported VOC concentrations was found between Whiting sites for tubes or canisters.     

Occurrence of Volatile Organic Compounds in Aquifers of the United States1

Abstract: Samples of ambient ground water were collected during 1985‐2002 from 3,498 wells in 98 aquifer studies throughout the United States. None of the sampled wells were selected because of prior knowledge of nearby contamination. Most of these samples were analyzed for 55 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to characterize their national occurrence. Volatile organic compounds were found in samples collected from 90 of the 98 aquifer studies. Occurrence frequencies of one or more VOCs for the 98 aquifer studies ranged from 0 to about 77% at an assessment level of 0.2 microgram per liter (μg/l). The aquifer studies with the largest occurrence frequencies were in southern Florida, southern New York, southern California, New Jersey, and Nevada. Trihalomethanes and solvents were the most frequently occurring VOC groups. Of the 55 VOCs included in this assessment, 42 occurred in at least one sample at an assessment level of 0.2 μg/l. Chloroform, perchloroethene, and methyl tert‐butyl ether were the most frequently occurring VOCs. Many factors, such as the hydrogeology of the aquifer, use of VOCs, land use, and the transport and fate properties of VOCs, affect the occurrence of VOCs in ground water.     

A HYPOTHESIS ABOUT FACTORS THAT AFFECT MAXIMUM SUMMER STREAM TEMPERATURES ACROSS MONTANE LANDSCAPES1

ABSTRACT: Temperature is an important variable structuring lotic biotas, but little is known about how montane landscapes function to determine stream temperatures. We developed an a priori hypothesis that was used to predict how watershed elements would interact to affect stream temperatures. The hypothesis was tested in a series of path analyses using temperature data from 26 sites on second‐order to fourth‐order streams across a fifth‐order Rocky Mountain watershed. Based on the performance of the first hypothesis, two revised versions of the hypothesis were developed and tested that proved to be more accurate than the original hypothesis. The most plausible of the revised hypotheses accounted for 82 percent of the variation in maximum stream temperature, had a predicted data structure that did not deviate from the empirical data structure, and was the most parsimonious. The final working hypothesis suggested that stream temperature maxima were directly controlled by a large negative effect from mean basin elevation (direct effect = ‐0.57, p < 0.01) and smaller effects from riparian tree abundance (direct effect = ‐0.28, p = 0.03), and cattle density (direct effect = 0.24, p = 0.05). Watershed slope, valley constraint, and the abundance of grass across a watershed also affected temperature maxima, but these effects were indirect and mediated through cattle density and riparian trees. Three variables included in the a priori hypothesis ‐ watershed aspect, stream width, and watershed size ‐ had negligible effects on maximum stream temperatures and were omitted from the final working hypothesis.     

PREDICTABILITY OF SURFACE WATER POLLUTION LOADING IN PENNSYLVANIA USING WATERSHED‐BASED LANDSCAPE MEASUREMENTS1

ABSTRACT: We formally evaluated the relationship between landscape characteristics and surface water quality in the state of Pennsylvania (USA) by regressing two different types of pollutant responses on landscape variables that were measured for whole watersheds. One response was the monthly exported mass of nitrogen estimated from field measurements, while the other response was a GIS‐modeled pollution potential index. Regression models were built by the stepwise selection protocol, choosing an optimal set of landscape predictors. After factoring out the effect of physiography, the dominant predictors were the proportion of “annual herbaceous” land and “total herbaceous” land for the nitrogen loading and pollution potential index, respectively. The strength of these single predictors is encouraging because the marginal land cover proportions are the simplest landscape measurements to obtain once a land cover map is in hand; however, the optimal set of predictors also included several measurements of spatial pattern. Thus, for watersheds at this general hierarchical scale, gross landscape pattern may be an important influence on instream pollution loading. Overall, there is strong evidence that using landscape measurements alone, obtained solely from remotely sensed data, can explain most of the water quality variability (R²= approx. 0.75) within these watersheds.