Profitability of intensification technologies among smallholder maize farmers in the forest-savanna transition zone of Nigeria

Sustaining the productive capacity of the land resource under the existing land-use system and increasing population pressure requires the use of appropriate technologies that will enhance farm productivity and income levels.This paper examines the effect on farm profitability of smallholder maize farmers’ use of intensification technologies in tropical agriculture. The survey was conducted in southwest Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 300 respondents from two major agroclimatic zones in Osun State. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire and complemented with focus group discussions (FGDs), while the State’s Ministry of Agriculture provided secondary data.Pressure on land was found high because farmland was continuously cropped for an average of 10 years with a mean fallow period of 2 years only. Technologies used to intensify agriculture included inorganic fertilizer, organic manure, alley cropping, and tree planting.Results from costs and returns analysis showed that average net returns to inorganic fertilizer use ranked highest in the two zones, while tree planting ranked lowest. There was a significant ecoregional difference on the average net returns/year earned by users of mineral fertilizer. While organic manure use earned higher net returns than alley cropping practice in the rain forest, the reverse was the case for the derived savanna. FGDs revealed that respondents’ preferred to use inorganic fertilizer despite its inadequate supply because, apart from enhancing higher returns and net gains, it also improved output level and provided an opportunity for the continuous use of the scarce land.These results imply that economic returns play a critical role in farmers’ use of intensification technologies and consequently affect their resource management decisions. Policy measures aimed at promoting research on appropriate technologies that are profitable on farmers’ fields will be more effective in enhancing farmers’ use of intensification technologies.     

Trace element speciation in selected smelter-contaminated soils in Anaconda and Deer Lodge Valley, Montana, USA

Long-term copper smelting in the Anaconda and Deer Lodge Valley area of Montana has resulted in an extensive area of trace element contamination. Aerial extent of contamination is generally established, but total analysis of soils does not correlate to relative degree of impact on vegetation growth. Three pedons (Beaverell, Cetrack and Judco) were analyzed by routine soil characterization methods, aqua regia microwave digestion, sequential chemical extraction, and X-ray diffraction analysis with the objective of providing a better understanding of chemical forms and potential reactivity of selected trace elements (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, P, Pb). Surface horizons of soils are more acidic than subsoils, with pH for all horizons ranging from 4.0 to 8.7. Beaverell is the most contaminated in the upper 20 cm with the sum of total extractable (SUM_TE) trace elements by microwave digestion ranging from 1836 to 3605 mg kg⁻¹, largest H₂O-soluble (WS) and exchangeable (EX) fractions (e.g. 1.6 and 9.3%, respectively), and smallest residual (RES) fraction (e.g. 14.3%). Cetrack has greater SUM_TE elements than Judco, though a lower WS+EX fraction due to the effects of alkaline pH, carbonates and high P. Oxide (OX), organic matter/sulfide (OM/S), and RES fractions predominate over WS, EX, and specially-sorbed/carbonate-bound fractions (SS/CAR) for all horizons. Copper, Zn, Pb and Cd are elevated in surface over subsurface horizons in these latter fractions, indicating these elements were anthropogenic additions. X-ray data indicate that Pb, Cu, Cr and Cd partially exists as both OX and sulfide mineral forms.     

Gamergates in the myrmicine genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Metapone</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera:Formicidae)

Gamergates (i.e. mated reproductive workers) are mostly known from ant species within the Ponerinae. We report here the discovery of gamergates in two species of the subfamily Myrmicinae. Until now, mated reproductive females in colonies of myrmicine species have been considered morphologically distinct from the worker caste. However, in two species of the myrmicine Metapone (Metapone madagascarica and a newly discovered, not yet described Metapone species) all workers have six ovarioles and a spermatheca; and some of them are mated. There are no morphological differences between mated and non-mated workers. Field observations and laboratory studies indicate that colonies of the Metapone species can reproduce with gamergates only.     

Vocal acrobatics in a Chinese frog, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amolops tormotus</Emphasis>

Although amphibians are highly vocal, they generally emit only a limited number of acoustic communication signals. We report here the extraordinarily rich vocal repertoire of Amolops tormotus, a ranid species in China. These frogs produce countless vocalizations, some of which share features of birdsong or primate calls, e.g., ultrasonic frequency components, multiple upward and downward FM sweeps, and sudden onset and offset of selective harmonic components within a call note. Frame-by-frame video analysis of the frog's calling behavior suggests the presence of two pairs of vocal sacs that may contribute to the remarkable call-note complexity in this species. Electronic supplementary material to this paper can be obtained by using the Springer LINK server located at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-002-0335-x.     

Influence of conservation tillage on winter bird use of arable fields in Hungary

Bird use of conservation tillage-established (CT—seedbed preparation without soil inversion) crops was assessed at two adjacent sites in western Hungary, in comparison with conventionally established (mouldboard ploughed—P) fields. Bird abundance was assessed in a typical rotation of spring-sown maize and winter wheat in three consecutive winters. In the first winter, several species and the guild of seed-eating passerines were significantly more abundant on CT established plots, in both crop types. In the second winter, only starlings were more abundant on CT plots. In the third winter, only skylarks favoured CT over P plots. In combination with agri-environment scheme measures designed to provide resources for biodiversity, conservation tillage could play a role in softening the impact of agriculture on farmland birds in Hungary and elsewhere in Eastern Europe, in addition to its potential for reducing soil erosion and diffuse pollution.     

Climate anomalies, Indonesian vegetation fires and terrestrial carbon emissions

There was a widespread misconception about the causes of vegetation and land fires in Indonesia. At a certain point, the public perceived that fires and the associated haze pollution were primarily caused by smallholders' agricultural activities. In fact, there was a variety of land-use activities including large-scale land clearing following deforestation for further land development. El Niño events and the associated dry weather were sometimes quoted by officials and the media as the cause of fires. The fire episodes from 1980 to 2000 were analysed in connection with climate anomalies and the implementation of land-use policies related to forest conversions. The analysis employs long-term climatic and sea surface temperature data to reconstruct climate distributions and anomalies including Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and Outgoing Long-wave Radiation (OLR). In this study, the terrestrial carbon emissions from vegetation fires were estimated based on official statistical data on area burnt. The possible incentives for sustainable land management were discussed in the light of fire prevention. The underlying cause neglected in the discussion of Indonesian vegetation fires was forest and land development policy. Legitimated in the early 1980s, it drove massive forest conversions and the use of fires for land clearing. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) provided dry weather suitable for biomass burning and widespread fire, but it was hardly the cause of fires. The estimate of area burnt in the big fires in 1997 was about 11.6 Mha, resulting in carbon release of 1.45 Gt, equivalent to 0.73 ppmv of CO₂, or almost half the annual global atmospheric CO₂ growth. Based on the current carbon market price such emissions by the 1997 fire episode were worth around US$ 3.6 billion.     

丁基锡化合物在水体悬浮颗粒物上的吸附行为研究

将海河河口表层底泥制成悬浮颗粒物（ＳＰＭ），采用批量平衡法首次研究了模拟河口条件下三丁基锡（ＴＢＴ）和二丁基锡（ＤＢＴ）在该ＳＰＭ上的吸附行为．结果表明，ＴＢＴ和ＤＢＴ均能在ＳＰＭ上发生吸附，尤以ＴＢＴ更为显著．吸附速率可用Ｋｕｏ和Ｌａｋｅ的经验公式描述；吸附过程受ＳＰＭ的浓度及ＴＯＣ含量、ｐＨ值、温度、腐殖酸浓度和盐度影响．实际河口水样中的ＳＰＭ对ＴＢＴ和ＤＢＴ的吸附百分率也较高，因此ＳＰＭ是ＴＢＴ和ＤＢＴ归趋的重要场所，去除ＳＰＭ可使水体得到一定净化．     

Greenhouse Gas Inventory for Land Use Change and Forestry in Finland Based on International Guidelines

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change - Guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were used to assess a greenhouse gas inventory for land use change and...     

Groundwater pollution due to discharge of tannery effluents in Upper Palar basin, Tamilnadu, India: an assessment through mass transport modeling

The groundwater regime in Upper Palar basin, Tamilnadu has been highly contaminated in several locations due to discharge of effluents from a large number of tanneries. At some places total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration in groundwater was found as high as 8000 mg/l. Transmissivity and storativity of the regional aquifer were estimated at a few locations. The porosity and dispersivity values were not determined in the field. These parameters were assumed based on data available for similar geological formations elsewhere. The aquifer conceptualization thus arrived at formed the basis of a numerical groundwater flow model which was constructed using the finite difference method. The flow model was calibrated for steady state and then for transient condition for the period of 1984-92. The computed heads and calibrated parameters of the flow model were used to compute groundwater velocities. The migration of contaminants for a 20 year period was computed using the hydraulic heads and effective porosity value in a pathline model using FLOWPATH software. Mass transport model was constructed using Method of Characteristics (MOC) computer code in a separate model. The seepage rate of effluent is assumed at a rate of 30% of that discharged on the surface. The mass concentration of solute in the effluent reaching the water table was assumed as 40%, the same as in the surface effluent. The mass transport model was calibrated for a 20 year period. Prediction of contaminant migration from different clusters in the basin was analyzed. The prediction results indicated elevated TDS concentration of more than 4000 mg/l from most clusters. Also the area of the contaminated zone is likely to double in 20 years from contaminated zone of 1992.