Contamination Levels and Preliminary Assessment of the Technical Feasibility of Employing Natural Attenuation in 5 Priority Areas of Presidente Bernardes Refinery in Cubatão, São Paulo, Brazil

Five priority areas of potential impact by contaminants (API) were investigated at the Presidente Bernardes Refinery in Cubatão, São Paulo, Brazil with the following aims: (i) to identify both organic and inorganic contaminants present in soil and groundwater; (ii) to define the environmental conditions relevant for microbial activity at the site and (iii) to evaluate the feasibility of employing natural attenuation for treatment of the hydrocarbon contamination. One area (API 1) was an uncontrolled landfill, where waste materials from the refinery were deposited between 1954 and 1986, and four areas (API 4, 5, 7 and 11) were located in the operational section of the refinery. Soil contamination by regulated BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, total xylenes) was restricted to two samples from API 1. Nonregulated ethylbenzene was detected in one soil sample from API 4, one from API 5 and two from API 1. No soil contained regulated PAH above threshold levels. Several nonregulated PAHs were found in 6 soil samples from API 1, 3 soil samples from API 4 and 1 soil sample from API 5. Site soils contained very high aluminium concentrations, but metal contamination was restricted to one soil sample from API 1, which contained nickel above threshold limits. BTEX contamination of groundwater was due mostly to benzene. Of the 17 PAH molecules tested, only naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene occurred in groundwater. The sum of total BTEX and total PAH exceeded 200 μg/L in only a few monitoring wells in API 4, 5 and 11 and was always below 2.640 μg/L. Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Se, Ag, Tl and Zn were not detected in groundwater, which was contaminated in a few locations by aluminium (mostly below 1 mg/L), lead (<0.066 mg/L) and arsenic (<0.056 mg/L). S, K, Ca, Mg and Fe were present in groundwater in excess of physiological requirements for microbial growth, but low concentrations of N and P could become growth limiting. However, BTEX were efficiently degraded in saturated and unsaturated zone microcosms and nutrient amendments did not stimulate biodegradation rates measurably. The inorganic carbon pool in groundwater was up to one order of magnitude larger than the organic carbon pool. Total inorganic carbon (TIC) in API groundwater exceeded TIC of clean groundwater by factors of 2 (API 4), 6 (API 5, 7 and 11) or 10 (API 1). Most of the inorganic carbon incorporated into groundwater beneath the refinery originated from biodegradation in the unsaturated soil, which contained a microbiota (10⁶ cells/g on average) capable of growth with most of the pure (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene) and mixed hydrocarbons tested (diesel oil, gasoline, naphtha, condensate, aromatic residue and fuel oil). A viscous hydrocarbon paste uncovered in API 1 was insoluble in water but dissolved in dichloromethane. Many organic components of this paste were biodegradable as evidenced by weight reduction of the hydrocarbon paste and by the growth of suspended and attached biomass in saturated zone microcosms, where the paste was the only carbon source. This study indicates that monitored natural attenuation may be a technically feasible and efficient means for plume control in API 1, 4 and 5, provided the plumes in API 4 and 5 are not expanding. This technique is not suitable for contaminant reduction in API 11.     

ICT reuse in socio-economic enterprises

In Europe, socio-economic enterprises such as charities, voluntary organisations and not-for-profit companies are involved in the repair, refurbishment and reuse of various products. This paper characterises and analyses the operations of socio-economic enterprises that are involved in the reuse of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment. Using findings from a survey, the paper specifically analyses the reuse activities of socio-economic enterprises in the UK from which Europe-wide conclusions are drawn. The amount of ICT products handled by the reuse organisations is quantified and potential barriers and opportunities to their operations are analysed. By-products from reuse activities are discussed and recommendations to improve reuse activities are provided. The most common ICT products dealt with by socio-economic enterprises are computers and related equipment. In the UK in 2010, an estimated 143,750 appliances were reused. However, due to limitations in data, it is difficult to compare this number to the amount of new appliances that entered the UK market or the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment generated in the same period. Difficulties in marketing products and numerous legislative requirements are the most common barriers to reuse operations. Despite various constraints, it is clear that organisations involved in reuse of ICT could contribute significantly to resource efficiency and a circular economy. It is suggested that clustering of their operations into “reuse parks” would enhance both their profile and their products. Reuse parks would also improve consumer confidence in and subsequently sales of the products. Further, it is advocated that industrial networking opportunities for the exchange of by-products resulting from the organisations’ activities should be investigated. The findings make two significant contributions to the current literature. One, they provide a detailed insight into the reuse operations of socio-economic enterprises. Previously unavailable data has been presented and analysed. Secondly, new evidence about the by-products/materials resulting from socio-economic enterprises’ reuse activities has been obtained. These contributions add substantially to our understanding of the important role of reuse organisations.     

Integrated assessment modeling of global climate change: Transparent rational tool for policy making or opaque screen hiding value‐laden assumptions?

One of the principal tools used in the integrated assessment (IA) of environmental science, technology and policy problems is integrated assessment models (IAMs). These models are often comprised of many sub‐models adopted from a wide range of disciplines. A multi‐disciplinary tool kit is presented, from which three decades of IA of global climatic change issues have tapped. A distinction between multi‐ and inter‐disciplinarity is suggested, hinging on the synergistic value added for the latter. Then, a hierarchy of five generations of IAMs are proposed, roughly paralleling the development of IAMs as they incorporated more components of the coupled physical, biological and social scientific disciplines needed to address a “real world” problem like climatic change impacts and policy responses. The need for validation protocols and exploration of predictability limits is also emphasized. The critical importance of making value‐laden assumptions highly transparent in both natural and social scientific components of IAMs is stressed, and it is suggested that incorporating decision‐makers and other citizens into the early design of IAMs can help with this process. The latter could also help IA modelers to offer a large range of value‐containing options via menu driven designs. Examples of specific topics which are often not well understood by potential users of IAMs are briefly surveyed, and it is argued that if the assumptions and values embedded in such topics are not made explicit to users, then IAMs, rather than helping to provide us with refined insights, could well hide value‐laden assumptions or conditions. In particular, issues of induced technological change, timing of carbon abatement, transients, surprises, adaptation, subjective probability assessment and the use of contemporary spatial variations as a substitute for time evolving changes (what I label “ergodic economics”) are given as examples of problematic issues that IA modelers need to explicitly address and make transparent if IAMs are to enlighten more than they conceal. A checklist of six practices which might help to increase transparency of IAMs is offered in the conclusions. Incorporation of decision‐makers into all stages of development and use of IAMs is re‐emphasized as one safeguard against misunderstanding or misrepresentation of IAM results by lay audiences.     

Glutathione status and glutathione reductase activity in spruce needles of healthy and damaged trees at two mountain sites

Levels of glutathione, in both reduced and oxidized form, and glutathione reductase activity were monitored in needles of healthy and damaged spruce trees (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) during the course of four vegetation periods at two natural sites. The glutathione content and glutathione reductase activity showed a pronounced annual rhythm in undamaged trees, whereas damaged spruce trees deviated significantly from this course. In comparison with undamaged trees, damaged trees showed markedly increased levels of glutathione during the test period of 1989-1991. However, glutathione reductase activity differed in damaged and undamaged trees, only in 1989-1990. The ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG ratio) was slightly higher in damaged trees, and the highest levels were found during the winter months. In the case of damaged trees, a correlation between GSH/GSSG ratio and current ozone levels at the sites could be clearly established. The present results indicate that damaged trees suffer from increased oxidative stress, especially in the period from June to October.