Gravitational infusion of ethylenediurea (EDU) into trunks protected adult European ash trees (Fraxinus excelsior L.) from foliar ozone injury

Adult ash trees (Fraxinus excelsior L.), known to be sensitive or insensitive to ozone, determined by presence or absence of foliar symptoms in previous years, were treated with ethylenediurea (EDU) at 450 ppm by gravitational trunk infusion on six occasions at 21-day intervals in summer 2005 at Turin, Italy. At the end of the season, foliar ozone injury on EDU-treated trees was not complete, but was greatly and significantly reduced when compared to results from trees infused with water. Significant symptom reduction occurred at any crown level in the treated trees suggesting that EDU protected whole crowns. Gravitational infusion of EDU resulted in protection from ozone injury for ozone-sensitive ash trees. The amount of EDU needed to provide protection is assumed to be in the range 13-26 mg m(-2) leaf.     

Linking ground-water age and chemistry data along flow paths: implications for trends and transformations of nitrate and pesticides

Tracer-based ground-water ages, along with the concentrations of pesticides, nitrogen species, and other redox-active constituents, were used to evaluate the trends and transformations of agricultural chemicals along flow paths in diverse hydrogeologic settings. A range of conditions affecting the transformation of nitrate and pesticides (e.g., thickness of unsaturated zone, redox conditions) was examined at study sites in Georgia, North Carolina, Wisconsin, and California. Deethylatrazine (DEA), a transformation product of atrazine, was typically present at concentrations higher than those of atrazine at study sites with thick unsaturated zones but not at sites with thin unsaturated zones. Furthermore, the fraction of atrazine plus DEA that was present as DEA did not increase as a function of ground-water age. These findings suggest that atrazine degradation occurs primarily in the unsaturated zone with little or no degradation in the saturated zone. Similar observations were also made for metolachlor and alachlor. The fraction of the initial nitrate concentration found as excess N2 (N2 derived from denitrification) increased with ground-water age only at the North Carolina site, where oxic conditions were generally limited to the top 5 m of saturated thickness. Historical trends in fluxes to ground water were evaluated by relating the times of recharge of ground-water samples, estimated using chlorofluorocarbon concentrations, with concentrations of the parent compound at the time of recharge, estimated by summing the molar concentrations of the parent compound and its transformation products in the age-dated sample. Using this approach, nitrate concentrations were estimated to have increased markedly from 1960 to the present at all study sites. Trends in concentrations of atrazine, metolachlor, alachlor, and their degradates were related to the timing of introduction and use of these compounds. Degradates, and to a lesser extent parent compounds, were detected in ground water dating back to the time these compounds were introduced.     

Evaluation of ogawa passive sampling devices as an alternative measurement method for the nitrogen dioxide annual standard in El Paso, Texas

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) is a common urban air pollutant that results from the combustion of fossil fuels. It causes serious human health effects, is a precursor to the formation of ground level ozone, another serious air pollutant, and is one of the six criteria air pollutants established by the United States (U.S.) Clean Air Act (CAA). Ogawa Passive Sampling Devices (PSDs) for NO₂ were collocated and operated at six NO₂ Federal Reference Method (FRM) monitor locations in the El Paso, Texas area for the 2004 calendar year. Passive samples were taken at 2-week, 3-week, and 4-week intervals and compared against the continuously operating FRM monitors. Results showed that the collective NO₂ annual arithmetic mean for all passive monitors was identical to the NO₂ mean for all FRM monitors. Of the individual locations, three passive annual NO₂ means were identical to their corresponding FRM means, and three passive annual NO₂ means differed from their corresponding FRM means by only one part per billion (ppb). Linear correlation analysis between all readings of the individual NO₂ PSDs and FRM values showed an average absolute difference of 1.2 ppb with an r ² of 0.95. Paired comparison between high and low concentration annual NO₂ sites, seasonal considerations, and interlab quality control comparisons all showed excellent results. The ease of deployment, reliability, and the cost-savings that can be realized with NO₂ PSDs could make them an attractive alternative to FRM monitors for screening purposes, and even possibly an equivalent method for annual NO₂ monitoring. More tests of the Ogawa NO₂ PSD are recommended for different ecosystem and climate regimes.     

DNA sequence analysis identifies genetically distinguishable populations of harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) in the Northwest and Northeast Atlantic

Harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus Erxleben, 1777) comprise three populations based upon whelping areas in the Greenland Sea, White Sea, and Northwest Atlantic. The last comprises two subpopulations, one whelping in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (“Gulf ”) and one on the pack ice of the southern Labrador/northern Newfoundland coastal shelf (“Front”). A total of 40 female seals from the four whelping areas were collected during the 1990 and 1992 whelping seasons. DNA sequence variation was examined in a 307 bp region of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Eleven variable nucleotide positions defined 13 genotypes: a significant fraction of the genotypic variance (F _ST=0.12, or 0.09 as measured by Weir's coancestry coefficient θ) is attributable to differentiation between Northwest and Northeast Atlantic populations. There was no significant differentiation between the two whelping areas in the Northwest Atlantic, or between the Greenland Sea and White Sea. These findings suggest significant reproductive isolation exists between trans-Atlantic breeding populations. Received: 18 January 1999 / Accepted: 22 February 2000     

Effects of dissolved ammonium addition and host feeding with Artemia salina on photoacclimation of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata

 Effects of nutrient treatments on photoacclimation of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata (Esper) were studied. Studies on photoacclimation of colonies from different light regimes in the field were evaluated and used to design laboratory experiments. Coral colonies were collected in the Gulf of Eilat (Israel) from January to March 1993. Exterior branches of colonies from different depths (1 to 40 m) displayed different trends in production characteristics at reduced and very low levels of illumination. From 24 ± 3% to 12 ± 2% of incident surface photosynthetic active radiation (PAR_o), zooxanthella population density and chlorophyll a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae increased, a trend seen in the range of light levels optimal for coral growth (90 to 30% PAR_o). The P _max of CO₂ per 10⁶ zooxanthellae decreased, while P _max of CO₂ per 10³ polyps increased, indicating an increase in zooxanthella population density at low light levels. Proliferous zooxanthella frequency (PZF, a measure of zooxanthella division) declined significantly at light levels <18 ± 3% PAR_o. At the lowest levels of illumination (<5% PAR_o), zooxanthella population density decreased, as did the PZF; chl a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae was unchanged. In 28-d experiments, exterior coral branches from the upper surfaces of colonies from 3 m depth (65 ± 4% PAR_o) were incubated in aquaria under bright (80 to 90% PAR_o), reduced (20 to 30% PAR_o), and extremely low (2 to 4% PAR_o) light intensities. At each light intensity, the corals were maintained in three feeding treatments: sea water (SW); ammonium enriched SW (SW + N); SW with Artemia salina nauplii (SW + A). An increase in P _max of CO₂ per 10³ polyps was found in corals acclimated to reduced light (20 to 30% PAR_o) in nutrient-enriched SW, while in SW, where the increase in zooxanthella population density was smaller, it did not occur. Nutrient enrichments (SW + N at 2 to 4% PAR_o and SW + A at 20 to 30% PAR_o) increased zooxanthella population density, but had no effect on chl a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae. Acclimation for 14 d to reduced (10 to 20% PAR_o) and extremely low (1 to 3% PAR_o) light intensities shifted ¹⁴C photoassimilation into glycerol and other compounds (probably glycerides), rather than sugars. Both ammonium addition and feeding with Artemia salina nauplii resulted in an increase in photosynthetic assimilation of ¹⁴C into amino acids. We conclude that acclimation to reduced light consists of two processes: an increase in photosynthetic pigments and in zooxanthella population density. Both processes require nitrogen, the increase in zooxanthella population density needing more; this adaptation is therefore limited in nitrogen-poor sea water. Received: 19 June 1998 / Accepted: 13 June 2000     

Can synchronous spawning be predicted from environmental parameters? A case study of the lugworm Arenicola marina

The annual epidemic spawning period of a Scottish population of Arenicola marina (L.) has been recorded over a period of 13 yr. This population spawns between mid-October and mid-November in a discrete spawning event over a period of 4 to 5 d. Endocrine manipulation experiments showed that spawning is induced in females only if sufficient titres of PMH (prostomial maturation hormone) are present in the prostomia. These levels are attained during the 2 to 3 wk prior to the natural spawning date. The East Sands, St. Andrews population always spawns during periods of spring tides regardless of tidal amplitude or whether they are full- or new-moon tides. Meteorological data, including sea-temperature data were collected for each year, and correlation of the environmental data with spawning time was attempted. Correlation of spawning times with weather patterns showed that mean daily air pressures were significantly higher during the spawning period than from September to November as a whole. Evidence also suggests that a reduction in sea temperature is required prior to spawning. A significant moderate negative correlation was found between May to July air temperatures and spawning date, suggesting that higher May to July temperatures may induce early spawning. Daily rainfall and wind speed were also lower during the spawning period, but not significantly so. These results indicate that air pressure (or changes therein) may act as a final spawning cue, and the advantages of this are discussed in relation to fertilization success. A model of the interplay between environmental parameters and the endocrine mechanisms controlling the induction of spawning is proposed. Higher than average summer temperatures may advance gametogenesis to bring the population into a state of maturity (full-size oocytes, well-developed sperm morulae), and may also advance spawning time. Once the population has completed gametogenesis, a drop in sea temperature is then required to trigger an increase in endocrine titres within the prostomium, without which spawning cannot be induced by prostomial injection. The population spawns on spring tides; however a lack of clement weather coinciding with the spring tide will result in population-wide spawning being aborted, as in 1996. Clement weather (high pressure, low rainfall and wind speed) in conjunction with spring tides permits spawning to proceed to completion. Received: 21 June 1999 / Accepted: 25 January 2000     

Contrasting life histories and secondary production of populations of Munnopsurus atlanticus (Isopoda: Asellota) from two bathyal areas of the NE Atlantic and the NW Mediterranean

The isopod Munnopsurus atlanticus occupies bathyal depths in both the Bay of Biscay (NE Atlantic; between 383 and 1022 m) and in the Catalan Sea (Northwestern Mediterranean; between 389 and 1859 m). The species was dominant in both assemblages, reaching bathymetric peaks of abundance on the upper part of the continental slope (400 m depth) in the Bay of Biscay and at ˜600 m in the Catalan Sea. Both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean populations are bivoltines. Demographic analysis of the Bay of Biscay population revealed the production of two generations per year with different potential longevity (5 mo for G₁ and 11 mo for G₂). The mean cohort-production interval (CPI) was estimated at 8 mo, and results of the demographic analysis were also used to estimate production for the Catalan Sea populations. Mean annual density (D) and biomass (B) were higher in the Bay of Biscay (D = 356.7 individuals 100 m⁻²; B = 0.803 mg dry wt m⁻² yr⁻¹) than in the Mediterranean (D = 16.3 individuals 100 m⁻²; B = 0.078 mg dry wt m⁻² yr⁻¹). Also, mean annual production was an order of magnitude higher in the Atlantic (between 4.063 and 4.812 mg dry wt 100 m⁻² yr⁻¹ depending on the method used) than in the Catalan Sea (between 0.346 and 0.519 mg dry wt 100 m⁻² yr⁻¹). M. atlanticus feeds on a wide variety of benthic and pelagic food sources. In both study areas, phytodetritus was not important in the diet of M. atlanticus. In contrast, gut-content data suggested an indirect coupling with phytoplankton production in both areas via foraminiferans. The life history and the recorded production are considered in respect to both the dynamics and levels of primary production and the total mass flux in the respective study areas. Differences in the secondary production of both populations seemed to be more consistently explained by differences in total mass flux than by differences in the primary production levels; this is also consistent with the variety of food sources exploited by M. atlanticus. Received: 22 February 1999 / Accepted: 3 February 2000     

Reproductive variability over a four-year period in the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus (Echinoidea: Echinodermata) from differing habitats in New Zealand

 The endemic New Zealand echinoid, Evechinus chloroticus (Valenciennes), was sampled approximately monthly from September 1990 to October 1994 at three sites in Tory Channel, Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand. These channel sites (outer, mid and inner) were up to 20 km from the open ocean and differed in their shore type, exposure to wave action and macrophyte abundance. E. chloroticus showed an annual reproductive cycle at each site, with gametogenesis commencing in the late austral winter and spawning in summer. Maximum gonad indices (reproductive potential) varied spatially, with the outer site generally having higher maximum gonad indices than the inner site, and temporally, with maximum gonad indices occurring earlier in 3 of the 4 seasons at the outer site than the inner site. The mid and inner sites showed much greater variation in maximum gonad indices (range 15.83 to 26.99% and 11.87 to 20.90%, respectively) than the outer site (range 19.31 to 22.95%). Reproductive output (weight of gametes released per gram echinoid) also varied, with the different sites showing significantly different outputs in the different years. A regression of maximum reproductive potential against reproductive output was significant ( p < 0.001), and had a positive slope with an r ² of 0.79. While, the initiation of gametogenesis was relatively synchronous between sites and years, and is possibly cued by increasing daylength, it progressed at different rates among populations. Spawning did show spatial and temporal variability, occurring near the time of highest sea-surface temperatures (∼15 °C). The observed variations in reproductive cycle may be related to small-scale variability in diet and environmental conditions. Furthermore, asynchronous spawning, variable spawning duration, and variable reproductive output are likely to strongly influence annual recruitment variability in E. chloroticus, with different larval subpopulations contributing unequally in different years. The ecological consequences of this, both for the ability of E. chloroticus to propagate itself in space and time and for the management of the developing E. chloroticus fishery in New Zealand, are discussed. Received: 9 December 1998 / Accepted: 13 June 2000     

Meiofauna response to a dynamic river plume front

 The benthic response to a plume front was studied in two areas of the northern Adriatic (Mediterranean Sea) differently influenced by the Po River freshwater input. Sediment samples were collected in June 1996 and February 1997 from 12 stations. The adopted sampling strategy was able to identify the front line in real time by satellite images and to locate sampling stations along an inner–outer plume gradient in order to cover the benthic area beneath the river plume, where enhanced biological production was expected, and open-sea sediments not directly influenced by freshwater inputs. Meiofaunal parameters were compared to the physical conditions and to phytodetritus inputs, organic matter accumulation and bacterial secondary production. The sediments of the Adriatic Sea were characterised by high concentrations of phytopigments (0.6 to 13.9 μg g⁻¹ for chlorophyll a and 1.2 to 17.7 μg g⁻¹ for phaeopigments) and biopolymeric organic carbon (0.15 to 3.02 mg g⁻¹). The plume system extended for a large sector of the northern Adriatic. In the northern area, a large and highly dynamic plume area was coupled with a sediment organic matter concentration significantly higher than in open-sea sediments. In the southern sector, where the plume area and the front line did not change markedly during the year, plume–benthic coupling was evident only in the sediments beneath the front, and corresponded to phaeopigment accumulation. Bacterial parameters and secondary production were high and significantly higher in the frontal area than at open-sea stations. Meiofauna density (1342 to 8541 ind. 10 cm⁻²) did not change either by season or between areas and was significantly correlated with phaeopigments and bacterial secondary production. Meiofauna displayed different responses to plume inputs in the two sampling areas. In the northern sector, meiofauna density was coupled with organic matter distribution and displayed highest values beneath the plume. In the southern sector, the densities of copepods, turbellarians and kinorhynchs displayed highest values under the front in summer, and the same applied to total meiofauna density in winter. Juvenile decapods and copepod nauplii significantly increased their densities in sediments beneath the front. Data presented in the present study suggest that plume inputs and frontal systems, enhancing phytodetritus accumulation and benthic bacterial response, might influence density, composition and distribution of meiofaunal assemblages. As river plumes are highly variable systems affecting the trophic characteristics of the sediments underneath, their dynamics should be considered when analysing mesoscale spatial changes of meiofaunal assemblages. Received: 30 November 1999 / Accepted: 24 May 2000     

The influence of potential reproductive rate and variation in mate quality on male and female choosiness in the sand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus

Recent models of choosiness in mate choice have identified two particularly important factors: the potential reproductive rate (PRR) of the choosing sex relative to that of the chosen sex, and the variation in quality of potential mates. This experimental study tested how these factors affected choosiness in male and female sand gobies, Pomatoschistus minutus. We manipulated relative PRR by means of water temperature, and mate quality by means of body length. The choosing male or female was offered a choice between two mates with either a small or a large difference in body length representing a small or a large variation in mate quality. Choosiness was measured as (1) preference for the larger mate, and (2) as whether or not spawning occurred with the smaller mate, while the larger mate was visible but screened off. We found that females preferred large males, and that their level of choosiness was affected by variation in male quality, but not by their own relative PRR. Males, on the other hand, seemed unselective in all treatments and were in general more likely than females to spawn with their provided partner. This suggests that in the sand goby, variation in male mate quality has a greater influence than relative PRR on facultative changes in female choosiness. However, a general difference in PRR between males and females may be one important factor explaining the observed sex difference in choosiness. Received: 17 April 2000 / Revised: 24 June 2000 / Accepted: 17 July 2000