"We all knew that a cyclone was coming": disaster preparedness and the cyclone of 1999 in Orissa, India

Imagine that a cyclone is coming, but that those living in the affected areas do nothing or too little to protect themselves. This is precisely what happened in the coastal state of Orissa, India. Individuals and communities living in regions where natural hazards are a part of daily life develop strategies to cope with and adapt to the impacts of extreme events. In October 1999, a cyclone killed 10,000 people according to government statistics, however, the unofficial death toll is much higher. This article examines why such a large loss of life occurred and looks at measures taken since then to initiate comprehensive disaster-preparedness programmes and to construct more cyclone shelters. The role of both governmental organisations and NGOs in this is critically analysed. The good news is that, based on an assessment of disaster preparedness during a small cyclone in November 2002, it can be seen that at community-level awareness was high and that many of the lessons learnt in 1999 were put into practice. Less positive, however, is the finding that at the state level collaboration continues to be problematic.     

Determination of chlorimuron and metsulfuron residues in two soils of Argentina using a rapid seed-bioassay

The presence of chlorimuron ethyl and metsulfuron methyl in two soils was determined by a modified petri dish bioassay. Pregerminated seeds of maize and sunflower were placed in petri dishes containing 85 to 100 g of treated soil. Radicle root lengths were measured after 24 h. Chlorimuron had no effect on maize on the Balcarce soil, however 0.007 microg g(-1) decreased sunflower root length. Chlorimuron decreased maize and sunflower root length regardless application dose on the San Cayetano soil. Metsulfuron decreased maize root length at 0.04 microg g(-1) and sunflower at 0.021 microg g(-1) on the Balcarce soil. On the San Cayetano soil metsulfuron at 0.001 microg g(-1) decreased maize and sunflower root length. The phytotoxicity of chlorimuron and metsulfuron changed according to soil type and dose. Maize and sunflower were 1.3-1.5 and 1.3-1.8 times respectively more sensitive to chlorimuron on the San Cayetano soil than on the Balcarce soil. In the case of metsulfuron, maize was similarly sensitive on both soils but sunflower was 1.7-2.0 times more sensitive on the San Cayetano soil than on the Balcarce soil. Phytotoxicity increased as organic matter (OM) content decreased and/or when the soil pH and concentration increased.     

Environmental chemical cues associated with prey and subsequent prey preference in the wolf spider Hogna carolinensis Hentz (Araneae,Lycosidae)

The purpose of this study was to determine if environmental chemical cues associated with prey can affect subsequent prey choice in wolf spiderlings (Hogna carolinensis). After emergence from the egg sac, three groups of 10 spiderlings were each fed for one-week on one of three naturally-occurring prey species: group 1 fed on nymphs of the field cricket Gryllus pennsylvanicus; group 2 (house cricket, Acheta domesticus); group 3 (mole cricket, Gryllotalpa hexadactyla). They were then tested for subsequent prey preference in choice tests conducted in a plastic arena. Each spiderlings was presented simultaneously with one individual of each prey species in a randomized design. Spiderlings exhibited a significant first preference for the original diet. Thus, experience with certain foods (environmental chemical cues) encountered by newly hatched spiderlings can affect subsequent prey preference in this species.     

Measuring acid volatile sulphide in floodplain lake sediments: effect of reaction time, sample size and aeration

For the routine measurement of acid volatile sulphide (AVS) in floodplain lake sediments, an earlier published diffusion method was adapted and optimised. We evaluated the effect of reaction time, sample weight and passive sample aeration on AVS recovery, and determined the method's reproducibility. The optimal reaction time was 4 h. Losses of AVS due to sample aeration did not occur within 15 min of sample-air contact. Relative standard deviation was <2.5% for known sulphide solutions, was between 10% and 15% for AVS concentrations in sediments and <12% for SEM concentrations in sediments, generally. Sediment samples with known SEM and AVS content were used to compare results of the developed method with the purge-and-trap method. There is a good agreement with the purge-and-trap method for SEM concentrations. AVS concentrations measured with the diffusion method are higher than with the purge-and-trap method. We conclude that the adapted diffusion method is well suited for the routine measurement of AVS concentrations in floodplain sediments.     

Determining the agricultural ammonia immission using bark bio-monitoring: comparison with passive sampler measurements

Bark samples of spruce, pine and oak trees were collected at two sites in southern Bavaria which are characterized by high agricultural ammonia emissions. The samples were taken using a recently developed bark sampling device which removes a defined layer of the bark. The bark was then analysed for ammonium concentration in order to reflect the environmental ammonia immission. The measured bark concentrations decreased with rising distance between the sample trees and the ammonia source. This applied (i) to measurements inside a closed forest stand ranging from forest edge with high immission to forest interior with much lower immission, and (ii) to the open field where single-standing trees were sampled. Comparing the ammonium concentrations among the three different tree species revealed significant correlations. Thus, it could be shown that old spruce trees are as usable for bark bio-monitoring as the traditionally used pine and oak trees. The ammonium concentrations of the bark were significantly correlated to measurements taken by ammonia passive samplers at the same locations. These results indicate that bark samples may be used for a standardised monitoring of airborne ammonia load. A major advantage of the technique is the determination of the long-term accumulative ammonia load using a single measurement.     

Earthquake-related chemical and radioactivity changes of thermal water in Kuzuluk-Adapazan,Turkey

The movements of the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) caused two devastating earthquakes within an 87-day interval, epicentered on G?lcük-Izmit (17 August, 1999) and Düzce-Bolu (12 November, 1999). The Kuzuluk geothermal area (KGA) is located in the middle of the epicenters and the distance between the geothermal area and the fault zone is less than 5 km. Hot water samples were collected from two thermal boreholes that supply hot water to the Kuzuluk thermal complex. The water samples taken prior to and after earthquakes were analysed by Neutron Activation and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Particularly, increase in total a and total beta activities, in the content of Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu and decrease in the content of Fe, Zn, Cd, Mn, and Co are significant. The highest values are 75, 35, 12 and 65 ppb for Pb, Cr, Ni and Cu, respectively. The lowest values are 45, 55, 15, 135 and 6 ppb for Fe, Zn, Cd, Mn and Co, respectively.     

Arsenic adsorption from aqueous solutions by activated red mud

Heat treatment and acid treatment methods have been tested on red mud to increase its arsenic adsorption capability. The results indicate that the adsorptive capacity of red mud can be increased by acid treatment. This treatment causes sodalite compounds to leach out. As(III) and As(V) adsorption characteristics of activated red mud have similar tendencies with raw red mud. Batch adsorption studies have shown that activated red mud in dosages ranging from 20 to 100 g l(-1) can be used effectively to remove arsenic from aqueous solutions. The process is pH dependent, the optimum range being 5.8-7.5 for As(III) and 1.8-3.5 for As(V). The maximum removals are 96.52% for As(V) and 87.54% for As(III) for solutions with a final pH of 7.25 and 3.50, respectively, for the initial arsenic concentration of 133.5 micromol l(-1) (10 mg l(-1)), activated red mud dosage of 20 g l(-1), contact time of 60 min and temperature of 25 degrees C. The adsorption data obtained follow a first-order rate expression and fit the Langmuir isotherm well. Isotherms have been used to obtain the thermodynamic parameters. It was found that the adsorption of As(III) was exothermic, whereas As(V) adsorption was endothermic.     

Estimating runoff phosphorus losses from calcareous soils in the Minnesota River basin

Bioavailable phosphorus (BAP) in stormwater runoff is a key issue for control of eutrophication in agriculturally impacted watersheds. Laboratory experiments were conducted in soil runoff boxes to determine BAP content in simulated storm runoff in 10 (mostly) calcareous soils from the Minnesota River basin in southern Minnesota. The soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) portion of the runoff BAP was significantly correlated with soil Mehlich-III P, Olsen P, and water-extractable P (all r2 > 0.90 and p < 0.001). A linear relationship (r2 = 0.88, p < 0.001) also was obtained between SRP in runoff and the phosphorus saturation index based on sorptivity (PSIs) calculated with sorptivity as a measure of the inherent soil P sorption capacity. Runoff levels of BAP estimated with iron oxide-impregnated paper were predicted well by various soil test P methods and the PSI, of the soils, but correlation coefficients between these variables and runoff BAP were generally lower than those for runoff SRP. Using these relationships and critical BAP levels for stream eutrophication, we found corresponding critical levels of soil Mehlich-III P and Olsen P (which should not be exceeded) to be 65 to 85 and 40 to 55 mg kg(-1), respectively.     

Mapping the probability of exceeding critical thresholds for cadmium concentrations in soils in The Netherlands

The probability of exceeding critical thresholds of Cd concentrations in the soil was mapped at a national scale. The critical thresholds in soil were based on food quality criteria for Cd in crops or in organs of cattle (Bos taurus), and were calculated by inverting a regression model for the Cd concentration in the crop, with the Cd concentration in soil, soil organic matter (SOM) content, clay content, and pH as predictors. The probability of exceeding the critical threshold for Cd in soil per node of a 500- x 500-m grid was approximated by Monte Carlo simulation, using the estimated cumulative distribution functions (cdf) of SOM, clay, pH, and Cd as input. The cdfs were estimated by simple indicator kriging with local prior means. For SOM, clay, and pH, detailed maps of soil type and land use were used to define subregions with assumed constant local means of the indicators (a priori distributions). The cdfs were sampled by Latin hypercube sampling. We accounted for correlation between the actual and critical Cd concentrations in soil by drawing Cd values from cdfs conditional on SOM and clay. The estimated probability for grassland is negligible, even in areas with high Cd concentrations in soil, and for maize (Zea mays L.) land the probability is almost everywhere smaller than 5%. For arable soils, however, these probabilities commonly are larger than 5% when sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) or wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is taken as a reference crop, and locally exceed 50%.     

Environmental Vulnerability Indicators for Environmental Planning and Decision-Making: Guidelines and Applications

Environmental decision-making and policy-making at all levels refers necessarily to synthetic, approximate quantification of environmental properties such as vulnerability, conservation status, and ability to recover after perturbation. Knowledge of such properties is essential to informed decision-making, but their definition is controversial and their precise characterization requires investments in research, modeling, and data collection that are only possible in the most developed countries. Environmental agencies and governments worldwide have increasingly requested numerical quantification or semiquantitative ranking of such attributes at the ecosystem, landscape, and country level. We do not have a theory to guide their calculation, in general or specific contexts, particularly with the amount of resources usually available in such cases. As a result, these measures are often calculated with little scientific justification and high subjectivity, and such doubtful approximations are used for critical decision-making. This problem applies particularly to countries with weak economies, such as small island states, where the most precious environmental resources are often concentrated. This paper discusses frameworks for a “least disappointing,” approximate quantification of environmental vulnerability. After a review of recent research and recent attempts to quantify environmental vulnerability, we discuss models and theoretical frameworks for obtaining an approximate, standardizable vulnerability indicator of minimal subjectivity and maximum generality. We also discuss issues of empirical testing and comparability between indicators developed for different environments. To assess the state of the art, we describe an independent ongoing project developed in the South Pacific area and aimed to the comparative evaluation of the vulnerability of arbitrary countries.