Chemical mimicry in an incipient leaf-cutting ant social parasite

Some social parasites of insect societies are known to use brute force when usurping a host colony, but most use more subtle forms of chemical cheating either by expressing as few recognition cues as possible to avoid being recognized or by producing similar recognition cues to the host to achieve positive discrimination. The former “chemical insignificance” strategy represents a more general adaptive syndrome than the latter “chemical mimicry” strategy and is expected to be characteristic of early evolutionary stages of social parasitism. We tested this hypothesis by experimentally analyzing the efficiency by which Acromyrmex echinatior leaf-cutting ants recognize intruding workers of the incipient social parasite Acromyrmex insinuator. The results were consistent with the parasite being “chemically insignificant” and not with the “chemical mimicry” hypothesis. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of cuticular hydrocarbon profiles showed that social parasite workers produce significantly fewer hydrocarbons overall and that their typical profiles have very low amounts of hydrocarbons in the “normal” C29–C35 range but large quantities of unusually heavy C43–C45 hydrocarbons. This suggests that the C29–C35 hydrocarbons are instrumental in normal host nestmate recognition and that the C43–C45 compounds, all of which are dienes and thus more fluid than the corresponding saturated compounds, may reinforce “chemical insignificance” by blurring any remaining variation in recognition cues.     

Larval development of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lightiella magdalenina</Emphasis> (Crustacea,Cephalocarida)

The larval development of the newly discovered cephalocarid from Mediterranean sea, Lightiella magdalenina, was analysed using light and scanning electron microscopy. Twenty-nine larval specimens, divided into 15 metanaupliar and 2 juvenile stages of development, were found. The first six metanaupliar stages had an even number (6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16) of trunk segments including telson. The condition of 20 trunk segments, typical of the adult, was reached after another 4 stages by the addition of a single segment per stage. At this tenth stage, the larvae had an incomplete number of trunk limbs. Another five stages were needed to complete the cephalic appendage development, passing from the metanaupliar to the juvenile stage, characterized by loss of the naupliar enditic process of the second antenna. Trunk limbs development was completed during the last two juvenile stages. According to the ontogenetic data reported for Hutchinsoniella macracantha and Lightiella incisa, these seventeen stages probably do not represent the complete developmental series. Nevertheless, they allow us to clarify the main features of cephalocarid ontogeny and show specific differences in the development of both the trunk segments and appendages.     

Release of phagocytosis-stimulating factor(s) by morula cells in a colonial ascidian

In vitro yeast phagocytosis by haemocytes of the compound ascidian Botryllus schlosseri was studied, with particular attention to interactions among different immunocyte types. It is demonstrated that the supernatant from haemocyte cultures matched with yeast cells contains factor(s) able to enhance yeast ingestion by Botryllus phagocytes. The increase in phagocytosis is not the consequence of yeast opsonisation, as the phagocytic index does not significantly increase when yeast cells, previously incubated in the culture media, are washed and re-suspended in filtered sea water. When haemocytes were fractionated by density gradient centrifugation and each band was incubated with yeast, the ability to stimulate phagocytosis was found in the supernatants from haemocyte cultures of fractions rich in morula cells (MC). Previous studies have demonstrated that MC express molecules recognised by anti-cytokine antibodies, as a consequence of the recognition of foreign molecules or cells. Our results indicate that molecules immunoreactive with anti-cytokine antibodies are required for modulating phagocyte activity, as the above-reported enhancing effect is completely absent in the presence of anti-IL-1-α and anti-TNF-α, but not of anti-rabbit-IgG antibodies, and they also highlight the presence of ‘cross-talk‘ between MC and phagocytes. A new scenario is therefore sketched, in which MC actively recognise non-self molecular patterns and, upon this recognition, release humoural factor(s) recognised by phagocytes, which modulate phagocytosis.     

Binary individual recognition in hermit crabs

One mechanism that permits the maintenance of dominance hierarchies is individual recognition, defined as the ability of an animal to recognize a conspecific on the basis of one or more identifying cues, and to associate it with experiences of victories or defeats that the animal has gained from preceding encounters with that particular individual. We examined whether the long-clawed hermit crab, Pagurus longicarpus, could differentiate between unfamiliar and familiar opponents. The experimental protocol was designed to control in pairs of interacting individuals several factors together, such as status and relative size of the opponent, as well as species, quality, and fit of the inhabited shell. The hermit crabs were more reactive and their agonistic level was higher in unfamiliar than in familiar pairs; in addition, betas were more prone to initiate an interaction with unfamiliar than with familiar alphas. The alternative explanation—that the ability to discriminate between familiar and novel shells can explain our results per se— was tested following, in part, Jackson and Elwoods (1989) protocol for Pagurus bernhardus and was, at least for this species, rejected. This study did not determine whether a true individual recognition occurs, but demonstrated that P. longicarpus categorizes the individuals into two heterogeneous subgroups, thus being capable of a binary discrimination among opponents.Communicated by T. Czeschlik     

Evaluation of Online Information Sources on Alien Species in Europe: The Need of Harmonization and Integration

Europe is severely affected by alien invasions, which impact biodiversity, ecosystem services, economy, and human health. A large number of national, regional, and global online databases provide information on the distribution, pathways of introduction, and impacts of alien species. The sufficiency and efficiency of the current online information systems to assist the European policy on alien species was investigated by a comparative analysis of occurrence data across 43 online databases. Large differences among databases were found which are partially explained by variations in their taxonomical, environmental, and geographical scopes but also by the variable efforts for continuous updates and by inconsistencies on the definition of “alien” or “invasive” species. No single database covered all European environments, countries, and taxonomic groups. In many European countries national databases do not exist, which greatly affects the quality of reported information. To be operational and useful to scientists, managers, and policy makers, online information systems need to be regularly updated through continuous monitoring on a country or regional level. We propose the creation of a network of online interoperable web services through which information in distributed resources can be accessed, aggregated and then used for reporting and further analysis at different geographical and political scales, as an efficient approach to increase the accessibility of information. Harmonization, standardization, conformity on international standards for nomenclature, and agreement on common definitions of alien and invasive species are among the necessary prerequisites.     

Predation on two brachiopods, Joania cordata and Argyrotheca cuneata, from an offshore reef in the Tyrrhenian Sea

Predator holes in empty shells of Joania cordata and Argyrotheca cuneata (Brachiopoda: Megathyrididae) collected in the marine protected area “Secche di Tor Paterno”, central Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy (41°35′N–12°20′E, at depths of 20–28?m), were analyzed. Predation intensity was low but appreciable, with the more common species J. cordata preyed on more frequently (6.7?%) than A. cuneata (3.8?%). Three main types of holes were recognized: (1) cylindrical drill holes with a circular outline, (2) larger irregular holes with a jagged outline, and (3) small holes at the bottom of depressions in the shell. They were probably produced by muricid gastropods, crabs, and Foraminifera, respectively. The large, irregular holes were the most common type in both brachiopod species. Evidence for predator selectivity with respect to which valve, the position of the hole on the valve, and the size of the brachiopod with respect to those available was assessed. The ventral valve, the postero-medial portions of both valves, and larger (J. cordata) or medium-sized (A. cuneata) shells were more frequently holed.     

A study of land transport of dangerous substances in Eastern Sicily

In this work a quantitative analysis of the risk in the land transport of hazardous materials in Sicily has been executed. Risk calculation has been carried out using the TRAT-GIS code, a software for incidental and environmental risk assessment associated with the transport of dangerous substances and supported by a Geographical Information System (GIS). Results have been collected in a database, the GIS allows to display the risk maps.Risk analysis has been made on a regional scale, then some critical points have been analysed in detail. Comparisons between different typologies of transport and routes have been possible by means of the risk maps. In order to reduce the risk and improve the protection of citizens, some proposals have been analysed in these past years and some of them have been recently realized. In this study other proposals for the optimization of the transport system have been formulated, results have also permitted to evaluate the risk reduction after the future application of the Regional Transportation Plan for the Sicily.     

Development and application of a regional-scale atmospheric mercury model based on WRF/Chem: a Mediterranean area investigation

The emission, transport, deposition and eventual fate of mercury (Hg) in the Mediterranean area has been studied using a modified version of the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF/Chem). This model version has been developed specifically with the aim to simulate the atmospheric processes determining atmospheric Hg emissions, concentrations and deposition online at high spatial resolution. For this purpose, the gas phase chemistry of Hg and a parametrised representation of atmospheric Hg aqueous chemistry have been added to the regional acid deposition model version 2 chemical mechanism in WRF/Chem. Anthropogenic mercury emissions from the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme included in the emissions preprocessor, mercury evasion from the sea surface and Hg released from biomass burning have also been included. Dry and wet deposition processes for Hg have been implemented. The model has been tested for the whole of 2009 using measurements of total gaseous mercury from the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme monitoring network. Speciated measurement data of atmospheric elemental Hg, gaseous oxidised Hg and Hg associated with particulate matter, from a Mediterranean oceanographic campaign (June 2009), has permitted the model’s ability to simulate the atmospheric redox chemistry of Hg to be assessed. The model results highlight the importance of both the boundary conditions employed and the accuracy of the mercury speciation in the emission database. The model has permitted the reevaluation of the deposition to, and the emission from, the Mediterranean Sea. In light of the well-known high concentrations of methylmercury in a number of Mediterranean fish species, this information is important in establishing the mass balance of Hg for the Mediterranean Sea. The model results support the idea that the Mediterranean Sea is a net source of Hg to the atmosphere and suggest that the net flux is ≈30 Mg year^?1 of elemental Hg.     

Heavy metal ion influence on the photosynthetic growth of Rhodobacter sphaeroides

The potential of purple non-sulphur bacteria for bioremediation was assessed by investigating the ability of Rhodobacter sphaeroides strain R26.1 to grow photosynthetically in heavy metal contaminated environments. Bacterial cultures were carried out in artificially polluted media, enriched with the transition metal ions Hg2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Ni2+, Co2+, MoO4(2-), and CrO4(2-) in millimolar concentration range. For each investigated ion the effect on growth parameters was evaluated. The analysis of concentration-effect curves revealed a differentiated response, indicating that diverse mechanisms of tolerance and/or resistance are involved. Adaptation or selection procedures were not applied, leading to assess intrinsic abilities of coping with these contaminants. The microorganism proved to be highly tolerant to heavy metal exposure, especially towards Co2+, Fe2+ and MoO4(2-). In addition Ni2+ and Co2+ were found to decrease the cellular content of light harvesting complexes. A characteristic behavior was observed with mercuric ions, which produced a significant increase of the lag-phase.