Males in the shade: habitat use and sexual segregation in the Galápagos sea lion (Zalophus californianus wollebaeki)

In many sexually dimorphic species adult sexes tend to segregate socially, spatially, or in habitat use. Several hypotheses have been formulated regarding underlying mechanisms. We investigated terrestrial habitat use and sexual segregation in a tropical otariid, the Galápagos sea lion (Zalophus californianus wollebaeki), where most of the hypotheses can be ruled out a priori. Factors relating to thermoregulation and costs of locomotion were of prime importance for habitat use. Habitats directly adjacent to the sea, with simple structured flat surfaces, shade, and tide pools were most frequented, but sexes and age classes differed in their usage patterns. Sexual segregation, both spatial and by habitat was pronounced in the reproductive period (RP), but remained high during the nonreproductive period (NRP). A GLM model of habitat use showed that in both seasons adult males frequented habitat types that adult females and other age classes used much less. Males were most abundant in suboptimal inland habitats, which offered only shade for cooling. Females with newborns differed in habitat use from females with older offspring and lone females. Spatial and habitat segregation are explained most parsimoniously as by-products of social processes, primarily intrasexual competition and female avoidance of male harassment, linked to the polygynous mating system.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

The causes of the tremble dance of the honeybee,Apis mellifera

Tremble dances are sometimes performed by returning forager bees instead of waggle dances. Recent studies by Seeley (1992) and Kirchner (1993) have revealed that this behaviour is part of the recruitment communication system of bees. The ultimate cause of tremble dances is, according to Seeley (1992), an imbalance between the nectar intake rate and the nectar processing capacity of the colony. This imbalance is correlated with a long initial search time of returning foragers to find bees to unload them. However, it remained unclear whether a long search time is the direct proximate cause of tremble dancing. Here we report that a variety of experimental conditions can elicit tremble dances. All of them have in common that the total search time that foragers spend searching for unloaders, until they are fully unloaded, is prolonged. This finding supports and extends the hypothesis that a long search time is the proximate cause of tremble dancing. The results also confirm the previous reports of Lindauer (1948) and others about factors eliciting tremble dancing.     

Acoustical signals in the dance language of the giant honeybee,Apis dorsata

Summary Acoustical signals emitted by dancing bees have recently been shown to transmit information about the location of food sources in the western honeybee, Apis mellifera. Towne (1985) reported that in the Asian honeybee species Apis dorsata, which builds a single comb in the open under overhanging rocks or tree branches, sound signals were not emitted by the dancers. This led to the conclusion that acoustical communication is restricted to bees that nest in the dark, like A. mellifera. Here we show that in fact A. dorsata produces dance sounds similar to those emitted by A. mellifera, and that these acoustical signals contain information about distance, direction and profitability of food sources. The acoustical transfer of information has thus evolved independently of nesting in dark cavities. The significance of nocturnal activity in Apis dorsata for the evolution of sound communication is discussed. Correspondence to: W.H. Kirchner     

Toward Conservation of Midcontinental Shorebird Migrations

Shorebirds represent a highly diverse group of species, many of which experience tremendous energy demands associated with long-distance migratory flights. Transcontinental migrants are dependent upon dynamic freshwater wetlands for stopover resources essential for replenishment of lipid reserves and completion of migration. Patterns of shorebird migration across midcontinental wetlands were detected from migration reports to American Birds and information provided by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service national wildlife refuges. Patterns in species composition and abundance varied geographically, emphasizing the uniqueness of different regions to migrating shorebirds. Smaller species and neotropical migrants moved primarily across the Great Plains, whereas larger species and North American migrants predominated in assemblages in the intermountain west Shorebirds were broadly dispersed in wetland habitats with dynamic water regimes. Whereas populations of shorebirds in coastal systems appear to concentrate at sites of seasonally predictable and abundant food resources, we propose that transcontinental shorebirds disperse and use wetlands opportunistically. This migration system exemplifies the need for large-scale, coordinated regional management efforts that recognize the dynamic nature of ecosystem processes.     

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF SOIL CONDITIONS ON FARM STRATEGIES TO REDUCE AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Utilizing predictions of pollutant movement generated by the CREAMS model, the economics of reducing field losses of sediment and nitrate percolation were compared between two soil types on each of two slopes common to the Upper Eastern Shore of Maryland. The soils considered were Matapeake silt loam and Sassafras sandy loam textures on field slopes of 3.5 percent and 7.5 percent. A representative cash grain farm was used as a basis of comparison. Under assumptions of profit maximization, economic optimal cropping systems varied by slope. Results further indicated that relative cost-effectiveness of sediment or nitrate percolation control varied by soil type for both slopes considered. Unit costs of sediment control were less on silt loam soils, while unit costs of nitrate percolation control were less on sandy loam soils.