Methods for collecting time/activity pattern information related to exposure to combustion products

Focus groups, surveys and questionnaires, diaries and observations can be used to gather information about people's exposure to a wide range of combustion products. Information about locations and durations of exposure, and sources of exposure can be obtained with these instruments. The types of instruments used must be fine tuned to meet the design characteristics of the community in which the study will be conducted.     

Atmospheric versus biological sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a tropical rain forest environment

To distinguish between pyrogenic and biological sources of PAHs in a tropical rain forest near Manaus, Brazil, we determined the concentrations of 21 PAHs in leaves, bark, twigs, and stem wood of forest trees, dead wood, mineral topsoil, litter layer, air, and Nasutitermes termite nest compartments. Naphthalene (NAPH) was the most abundant PAH with concentrations of 35 ng m(-3) in air (>85% of the sum of 21PAHs concentration), up to 1000 microg kg(-1) in plants (>90%), 477 microg kg(-1) in litter (>90%), 32 microg kg(-1) in topsoil (>90%), and 160 microg kg(-1) (>55%) in termite nests. In plants, the concentrations of PAHs in general decreased in the order leaves > bark > twigs > stem wood. The concentrations of most low-molecular weight PAHs in leaves and bark were near equilibrium with air, but those of NAPH were up to 50 times higher. Thus, the atmosphere seemed to be the major source of all PAHs in plants except for NAPH. Additionally, phenanthrene (PHEN) had elevated concentrations in bark and twigs of Vismia cayennensis trees (12-60 microg kg(-1)), which might have produced PHEN. In the mineral soil, perylene (PERY) was more abundant than in the litter layer, probably because of in situ biological production. Nasutitermes nests had the highest concentrations of most PAHs in exterior compartments (on average 8 and 15 microg kg(-1) compared to <3 microg kg(-1) in interior parts) and high PERY concentrations in all compartments (12-86 microg kg(-1)), indicating an in situ production of PERY in the nests. Our results demonstrate that the deposition of pyrolytic PAHs from the atmosphere controls the concentrations of most PAHs. However, the occurrence of NAPH, PHEN, and PERY in plants, termite nests, and soils at elevated concentrations supports the assumption of their biological origin.     

Overview and assessment of techniques to measure ammonia emissions from animal houses: the case of the Netherlands

In order to comply with the ammonia (NH(3)) emission reduction assigned to the Netherlands development of new measures are needed, which should be supported by fast and accurate measurements to arrive at new estimates of the NH(3) emission from each agricultural source. This paper gives an overview of the current methods used in the Netherlands to measure NH(3) emissions from animal houses, and provides alternative methods for some particular situations. For mechanically ventilated animal houses, passive flux samplers placed in the ventilation shafts of the animal house are presented as alternative to measure a larger number of animal houses (replicates) with the same housing system at a low price. For naturally ventilated animal houses, when mixing in the animal house is not good enough to allow measurements within the animal house (internal tracer gas ratio method), two measurement methods are discussed: the Gaussian plume dispersion model, which is usually not suitable for agricultural situations, and the flux frame method, which is not always applicable because of distortion of the flow around the building. Finally, for animal houses with outside yards for the animals, there are at this moment no methods available to measure the NH(3) emissions from these complex situations, although quick box methods (for the outside yards) and a combination of a backward Lagrangian stochastic model with open-path concentration measurements with a tunable diode laser (TDL), look promising.     

Bioavailability of contaminants estimated from uptake rates into soil invertebrates

It is often argued that the concentration of a pollutant inside an organism is a good indicator of its bioavailability, however, we show that the rate of uptake, not the concentration itself, is the superior predictor. In a study on zinc accumulation and toxicity to isopods (Porcellio scaber) the dietary EC(50) for the effect on body growth was rather constant and reproducible, while the internal EC(50) varied depending on the accumulation history of the animals. From the data a critical value for zinc accumulation in P. scaber was estimated as 53 microg/g/wk. We review toxicokinetic models applicable to time-series measurements of concentrations in invertebrates. The initial slope of the uptake curve is proposed as an indicator of bioavailability. To apply the dynamic concept of bioavailability in risk assessment, a set of representative organisms should be chosen and standardized protocols developed for exposure assays by which suspect soils can be evaluated.     

Temporal variation of trace metal geochemistry in floodplain lake sediment subject to dynamic hydrological conditions

Climate change and land use may significantly influence metal cycling in dynamic river systems. We studied temporal variation of sediment characteristics in a floodplain lake, including concentrations of dissolved organic carbon, acid volatile sulfide and trace metals. The sampling period included a severe winter inundation and a dramatic water level drop during summer. Temporal changes were interpreted using multivariate analysis and chemical equilibrium calculations. Metal concentrations in sediment increased with depth, indicating a gradual improvement of sediment quality. In contrast, dissolved metal concentrations were highest in top layers due to mobilization from oxyhydroxides and precipitation with sulfides in deeper layers. Inundation had a mobilizing effect as it stimulated resuspension and oxygenation of sediment top layers. Water table lowering combined with organic matter decomposition led to immobilization due to sulfide formation. The chemistry of the sediments was consistent with model calculations, especially for macro-elements. The results illustrate the importance of seasonality for metal risk assessment.     

The impact of pumped water from a de-watered Magnesian limestone quarry on an adjacent wetland: Thrislington, County Durham, UK

Although quarrying is often cited as a potential threat to wetland systems, there is a lack of relevant, quantitative case studies in the literature. The impact of pumped groundwater discharged from a quarry into a wetland area was assessed relative to reference conditions in an adjacent fen wetland that receives only natural runoff. Analysis of vegetation patterns at the quarry wetland site, using Detrended Correspondence Analysis and the species indicator values of Ellenberg, revealed a clear disparity between community transitions in the quarry wetland and the reference site. Limited establishment of moisture-sensitive taxa, the preferential proliferation of robust wetland species and an overall shift towards lower species diversity in the quarry wetland were explicable primarily by the physico-chemical environment created by quarry dewatering. This encompassed high pH (up to 12.8), sediment-rich effluent creating a nutrient-poor substrate with poor moisture retention in the quarry wetland, and large fluctuations in water levels.     

Environmental threats to buried archaeological remains

The last century's environmental pollution has created health problems, acidification of ground and lakes, and serious damage to our cultural heritage. Outdoor monuments suffer from this pollution, but so do buried archaeological remains. However, research on the deterioration of archaeological artifacts underground has so far been limited, and it is important to draw attention to this neglected field. This article presents results obtained at the Swedish National Heritage Board on the degradation of archaeological objects of bronze and iron and of bones from prehistoric graves, materials of which seem to be most affected by pollutants. The investigation methods, which were employed, are described. Other relevant studies are briefly reviewed. It is obvious that the deterioration rate of archaeological artifacts, especially of inorganic materials, has accelerated in recent years, and that this increased deterioration to a large part can be attributed to anthropogenic pollution. Regions that might be endangered are exemplified.     

Laboratory evaluation of thermophilic-anaerobic digestion to produce Class A biosolids. 1. Stabilization performance of a continuous-flow reactor at low residence time.

There is increasing interest in the United States in producing biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment that meet the criteria for Class A designation established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Class A biosolids are intended to be free of pathogens and also must meet requirements for reduction of the vector-attraction potential associated with untreated sludge. High-temperature processes are considered to produce Class A biosolids if the combination of operating temperature and treatment time exceeds minimum criteria, but this option is not applicable to mixed, continuous-flow reactors. Such reactors, or any combination of reactors that does not meet the holding time requirement at a specific temperature, must be demonstrated to inactivate pathogens to levels consistent with the Class A criteria. This study was designed to evaluate pathogen inactivation by thermophilic anaerobic digestion in a mixed, continuous-flow reactor followed by batch or plug-flow treatment. In this first of a two-part series, we describe the performance of a continuous-flow laboratory reactor with respect to physical and chemical operating parameters; microbial inactivation in the combined continuous-flow and batch treatment system is described in the second part. Sludges from three different sources were treated at 53 degrees C, while sludge from one of the sources was also treated at 55 and 51 degrees C. Relatively short hydraulic retention times (four to six days) were used to represent a conservative operating condition with respect to pathogen inactivation. Treatment of a fermented primary sludge led to an average volatile-solids (VS) destruction efficiency of 45%, while VS destruction for the other two sources was near or below 38%, the Class A criterion for vector attraction reduction. Consistent with other studies on thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sludges at short residence times, effluent concentrations of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) were relatively high. Also consistent with other studies, the most abundant VFA in the effluent was propionate. Gas production ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 m3/kg VS fed and from 0.8 to 1.3 m3/kg VS destroyed.     

Applicability of Fenton and H2O2/UV reactions in the treatment of tannery wastewaters

In this paper we evaluated the H2O2/UV and the Fenton's oxidation processes for the treatment of tannery wastewater under different experimental conditions. Efficiencies were judged by the amounts of organic substances degraded or eliminated under these treatment techniques. Daphnia magna and Vibrio fischeri were used to monitor toxicity. Organic compounds contained in the untreated and treated tannery wastewater were determined and identified using substance specific techniques. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in positive electron impact (EI(+)) mode was applied to determine volatile organics. Atmospheric pressure ionization (API) mass (MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) coupled with flow injection analysis (FIA) or liquid chromatography (LC) were used to detect or identify polar organic pollutants. The experimental results indicated that both oxidation processes--H2O2/UV at pH 3 and Fenton at pH 3.5--are able to reduce TOC content by mineralisation of the organic compounds.     

Treatment of chlorinated solvents by TiO2 photocatalysis and photo-Fenton: influence of operating conditions in a solar pilot plant

Titanium dioxide photocatalysis (using 20 0mg l(-1) of TiO2), under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and photo-Fenton (2 and 56 mg l(-1) iron) were applied to the treatment of different NBCS (non-biodegradable chlorinated solvents), such as dichloroethane, dichloromethane and trichloromethane dissolved in water at 50 mg l(-1). All the tests were performed in a 35-l solar pilot plant with compound parabolic collectors (CPCs) under natural illumination. The two solar treatments were compared with attention to chloride release and TOC mineralisation, as the main parameters. Photo-Fenton was found to be the more appropriate treatment for these compounds, assuming volatilisation as a drawback of photocatalytic degradation of NBCS dissolved in water. In this context, several operating parameters related to NBCS degradation, e.g., treatment time, temperature, hydrogen peroxide consumption and volatility of parent compounds are discussed. The correct choice of operating conditions can very often diminish the problem of volatilisation during treatment.