Field Validation of Sound Mitigation Models and Air Pollutant Emission Testing in Support of Missile Motor Disposal Activities

Abstract

The U.S. Department of Defense approved activities conducted at the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR) include both operational readiness test firing of intercontinental ballistic missile motors as well as the destruction of obsolete or otherwise unusable intercontinental ballistic missile motors through open burn/open detonation (OB/ OD). Within the Utah Division of Air Quality, these activities have been identified as having the potential to generate unacceptable noise levels, as well as significant amounts of hazardous air pollutants. Hill Air Force Base, UT, has completed a series of field tests at the UTTR in which sound-monitoring surveillance of OB/OD activities was conducted to validate the Sound Intensity Prediction System (SIPS) model. Using results generated by the SIPS model to support the decision to detonate, the UTTR successfully disposed of missile motors having an aggregate net explosive weight (NEW) of 56,500 lbs without generating adverse noise levels within populated areas. These results suggest that, under appropriate conditions, missile motors of even larger NEW may be detonated without exceeding regulatory noise limits. In conjunction with collecting noise monitoring data, air quality data was collected to support the development of air emission factors for both static missile motor firings and OB/OD activities. Through the installation of 15 ground-based air samplers, the generation of combustion fixed gases, hazardous air pollutants, and chlorides were monitored during the 56,500-lb NEW detonation event. Comparison of field measurements to predictions generated from the U.S. Navy’s energetic combustion pollutant formation model, POLU4WN, indicated that, as the detonation fireball expanded from ground zero, organic compounds as well as carbon monoxide continued to oxidize as the hot gases reacted with ambient air. Hazardous air pollutant analysis of air samplers confirmed the presence of chloromethane, benzene, toluene, 1,2-propadiene, and 2-methyl-1-propene, whereas the absence of hydrogen chloride gas suggested that free chlorine is not generated during the combustion process.     

Potential exposure of children and adults to cypermethrin following use of indoor insecticide foggers

The magnitude and distribution of cypermethrin from total release, over-the-counter foggers was studied in a test room and in residences to facilitate evaluation of regulatory exposure algorithms and new human exposure assessments based upon urine biomonitoring. Surface residue (SR) was evenly distributed in a small test room (3.6 μ g cypermethrin/cm²) where thorough mixing of the aerosol occurred. In a residence SR was significantly affected by room size and distance from the fogger. Air levels in the residence were as high as 30 μ g cypermethrin/cm³ after 4.5 h. The availability of surface residues was measured with an automated surface cotton cloth wipe and ethyl acetate extraction. Only 5% of the SR was available from nylon carpet. Tile, wood and linoleum resulted in 30, 10, and 10% of SR being available, respectively. These data are used to estimate cypermethrin exposure of children and adults for comparison with existing regulatory reference dosages and exposure assessments based upon biomonitoring.     

Field Dynamic Calibration of SO2 Recording Instruments

Recent air pollution legislation, introduced as a Clean Air Act into New South Wales, the most populous and most heavily industrialized Australian State relies mainly upon the establishment of maximum limits of emission of air impurities. Regulations made under the Act set out the first of a series of such limits which cover the more commonly encountered pollutants. Other limits will be included later as knowledge is accumulated but, in the meantime, where standards have not been fixed the "best practicable means" of controlling air pollution must be used. To facilitate administration and to provide financial support for scientific and engineering services in the form of the Air Pollution Control Board, industries of significant air pollution potential have been designated as scheduled premises and pay annual license fees. Further technical support for the legislation is provided by an Air Pollution Advisory Committee.     

Concurrent and Complete Anaerobic Reduction and Microaerophilic Degradation of Mono‐, Di‐, and Trichlorobenzenes

Bio‐Trap^®–based in situ microcosm studies were conducted to evaluate EHC‐M^® stimulated degradation of mono‐, di‐, and trichlorobenzenes in anaerobic groundwater at a site in Michigan. The data show that the EHC‐M^® amendment stimulated an overall increase in microbial activity and a shift in the microbial community structure, indicating more reduced conditions. Stable isotope probing with ¹³C₆‐chlorobenzene demonstrated attenuation of chlorobenzene and subsequent separation and characterization of the ¹²C‐ and ¹³C‐deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fractions were used to identify the attenuating microbes. These data clearly show the participation of an obligate aerobe in the chlorobenzene biodegradation process. Decreases in concentrations of trichlorobenzenes were also observed in comparison to a control. Due to the thermodynamically favorable reducing conditions stimulated by EHC‐M^®, the mechanism of degradation of the trichlorobenzenes is presumed to be reductive dehalogenation. However, on the strength of the DNA‐based analysis of microbial community structure, concurrent microaerophilic degradation of chlorobenzene or its metabolites was definitively demonstrated and cannot be ruled out for the other chlorobenzenes. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Simulating the Impact of Cover Degradation on RCRA Landfill Performance

The ability of near‐surface disposal facility cover designs to meet percolation performance criteria is influenced by degradation occurring over long periods of time. This study was conducted to determine the effect of degradation on percolation based on probabilistic distributions derived from historical climate data. Water‐balance predictions were evaluated using the HELP model, employing several variations of degradation in a traditional Resource Conservation and Recovery Act disposal facility cover design over a 100‐year simulation period. Analysis results were evaluated relative to two different selected thresholds for annual percolation (1 mm and 3 mm). Approximately 20 percent of the results did not exceed both the 1‐mm and 3‐mm thresholds, while 10 percent of the realizations exceeded the 1‐mm threshold but not the 3‐mm threshold, with remaining cases exceeding the 3‐mm threshold. These results demonstrate the importance of considering degradation in designing near‐surface disposal facilities, especially given the very long performance periods desired by different regulators. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A socio-ecological adaptive approach to contaminated mega-site management: from 'control and correct' to 'coping with change'

Mega-sites have a notable impact on surrounding ecological systems. At such sites there are substantial risks associated with complex socio-ecological interactions that are hard to characterize, let alone model and predict. While the urge to control and clean-up mega-sites (control and correct) is understandable, rather than setting a goal of cleaning up such sites, we suggest a more realistic response strategy is to address these massive and persistent sources of contamination by acknowledging their position as new features of the socio-ecological landscapes within which they are located. As it seems nearly impossible to clean up such sites, we argue for consideration of a 'coping with change' rather than a 'control and correct' approach. This strategy recognizes that the current management option for a mega-site, in light of its physical complexities and due to changing societal preferences, geochemical transformations, hydrogeology knowledge and remedial technology options may not remain optimal in future, and therefore needs to be continuously adapted, as community, ecology, technology and understanding change over time. This approach creates an opportunity to consider the relationship between a mega-site and its human and ecological environments in a different and more dynamic way. Our proposed approach relies on iterative adaptive management to incorporate mega-site management into the overall socio-ecological systems of the site's context. This approach effectively embeds mega-site management planning in a triple bottom line and environmental sustainability structure, rather than simply using single measures of success, such as contaminant-based guidelines. Recognizing that there is probably no best solution for managing a mega-site, we present a starting point for engaging constructively with this seemingly intractable issue. Therefore, we aim to initiate discussion about a new approach to mega-site management, in which the complexity of the problems posed by mega-sites is reflected upon in its entirety. These complexities are associated with uncertainties and unknowns that have to be addressed, as they have an impact on the strategies being developed and applied. We contend that the best that can be hoped for in mega-site management is an acceptable solution for the current state of affairs, with good flexibility to modify strategies as new site conditions, remediation possibilities, community preferences and management objectives develop over time.     

Fate and transport of atorvastatin and simvastatin drugs during conventional wastewater treatment

This research investigates the environmental behavior of two widely prescribed cholesterol-lowering statin drugs that are expected to be present at significant concentrations in wastewater influents, namely: atorvastatin and simvastatin. Batch biodegradation experiments suggest that both statins are well degraded during secondary treatment, and removal rates exhibit a substrate-enhancement model reflecting elements of both first-order behavior and cometabolism. Resulting biodegradation parameters are used in conjunction with literature sorption parameters to construct a mass-balance model of statin concentrations during conventional treatment. Model results exhibit excellent accuracy compared to measurements from a medium-sized WWTP in the Southeastern USA. Influent concentrations of 1.56 μg L(-1) and 1.23 μg L(-1) were measured for atorvastatin and simvastatin. Results also suggest that 85-90% of each drug is removed during conventional treatment, with sorption accounting for less than 10% of overall removal. Expected effluent concentrations are orders of magnitude less than previously reported ecotoxicity thresholds for both drugs. Overall, results suggest statin active ingredients do not pose a significant environmental threat. It is recommended that future work characterize the fate of statin metabolites and that the same mass-balance modeling approach be used to assess other highly-prescribed pharmaceutical drugs.     

Occurrence of boscalid and other selected fungicides in surface water and groundwater in three targeted use areas in the United States

Although the use of the insecticide γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) is now prohibited in many countries because of its hazardousness, stockpiles of γ-HCH still exist. In this study, we subjected γ-HCH to mechanochemical (MC) treatment with a planetary ball mill in the presence of CaO to investigate the feasibility of using this method for the treatment of γ-HCH stockpiles. We confirmed the degradation of γ-HCH and investigated the degradation mechanism. The major intermediates were identified to be 1,3,4,5,6-pentachlorocyclohexene (γ-PCCH) and chlorobenzenes (CBzs). Analysis of the steric structure of γ-HCH and identification of the degradation intermediates suggested that successive dehydrochlorination led to the formation of trichlorobenzenes. Products of further degradation (dichlorobenzenes, monochlorobenzene, and benzene) were also detected. Surprisingly, methane and ethane were also detected, which suggests cleavage of the C-C bonds of the cyclohexane ring and hydrogenation. All of the chlorine atoms in the γ-HCH could be transformed into inorganic chloride compounds by the MC treatment with CaO. Our results indicate that γ-HCH can be completely dechlorinated by MC treatment.     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in waterbird eggs of Hong Kong, China

Concentrations of PCDD/Fs, PCBs and PBDEs were measured in 56 egg samples collected from waterbirds of different species (Great Egret, Little Egret, Night Heron and Chinese Pond Heron) from different regions of Hong Kong (Ho Sheung Heung, Mai Po Village and Mai Po Lung Village) during 2000 and 2006. Dominance of 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF indicates a signature associated with commercial usage of PCBs. Although no significant variations were observed within- and between-site in the levels of PCDD/Fs, coplanar PCBs and PBDEs, the concentrations of coplanar PCBs were much higher than PCDD/Fs. Similarity in composition profiles of PCDD/F and coplanar PCBs from different egretries is possibly associated with non-point sources of these contaminants to Hong Kong. Predominant accumulation of BDE-47, BDE-99 and BDE-100 suggested the penta-BDE technical mixtures usage in Hong Kong and its vicinity. Toxic equivalency and Monte Carlo simulation technique showed potential risks on waterbirds due to their exposure to PCDD/Fs.     

A Side‐by‐Side Comparison of Pervious Concrete and Porous Asphalt1

Welker, Andrea L., James D. Barbis, and Patrick A. Jeffers, 2012. A Side‐by‐Side Comparison of Pervious Concrete and Porous Asphalt. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(4): 809‐819. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2012.00654.x Abstract: This article compares the performance of two permeable pavements, pervious concrete and porous asphalt, that were installed side‐by‐side in fall 2007. Because the pavements are located directly adjacent to one another, they experience the same vehicle loads, precipitation, and pollution loads. These permeable pavements are part of an infiltration stormwater control measure (SCM). This article focuses on the comparison of water quality parameters, maintenance and durability, and user perception. Eleven different water quality parameters were analyzed at this site for 19 different storm events over a one year period: pH, conductivity, total suspended solids, chlorides, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total dissolved copper, total dissolved lead, total dissolved cadmium, total dissolved chromium, and total dissolved zinc. Results from the two pavement types were compared using the Mann–Whitney U‐test. The only parameter that was found to be statistically different between the two pavements was pH. Periodic inspection of the two pavement types indicated that after two years of use both pavements were wearing well. However, there was some evidence of clogging of both pavements and some evidence of surface wear. A survey of users of the lot indicated that the perception of these permeable pavements was favorable.