Split-second escape decisions in blue tits (Parus caeruleus)

Bird mortality is heavily affected by birds of prey. Under attack, take-off is crucial for survival and even minor mistakes in initial escape response can have devastating consequences. Birds may respond differently depending on the character of the predator's attack and these split-second decisions were studied using a model merlin (Falco columbarius) that attacked feeding blue tits (Parus caeruleus) from two different attack angles in two different speeds. When attacked from a low attack angle they took off more steeply than when attacked from a high angle. This is the first study to show that escape behaviour also depends on predator attack speed. The blue tits responded to a high-speed attack by dodging sideways more often than when attacked at a low speed. Escape speed was not significantly affected by the different treatments. Although they have only a split-second before escaping an attack, blue tits do adjust their escape strategy to the prevailing attack conditions.     

Fate of ah receptor agonists during biological treatment of an industrial sludge containing explosives and pharmaceutical residues

GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: Sweden is meeting prohibition for deposition of organic waste from 2005. Since 1 million tons of sludge is produced every year in Sweden and the capacity for incineration does not fill the demands, other methods of sludge management have to be introduced to a higher degree. Two biological treatment alternatives are anaerobic digestion and composting. Different oxygen concentrations result in different microbial degradation pathways and, consequently, in a different quality of the digestion or composting residue, It is therefore necessary to study sludge treatment during different oxygen regimes in order to follow both degradation of compounds and change in toxicity. In this study, an industrial sludge containing explosives and pharmaceutical residues was treated with anaerobic digestion or composting, and the change in toxicity was studied. Nitroaromatic compounds, which are the main ingredients of both pharmaceutical and explosives, are well known to cause cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. However, little data are available concerning sludge with nitroaromatics and any associated dioxin-like activity. Therefore, we studied the sludge before and after the treatments in order to detect any changes in levels of Ah receptor (AhR) agonists using two bioassays for dioxin-like compounds. METHODS: An industrial sludge was treated with anaerobic digestion or composting in small reactors in a semi-continuous manner. The same volume as the feeding volume was taken out daily and stored at -20 degrees C. Sample preparation for the bioassays was done by extraction using organic solvents, followed by clean up with silica gel or sulphuric acid, yielding two fractions. The fractions were dissolved in DMSO and tested in the bioassays. The dioxin-like activity was measured using the DR-CALUX assay with transfected H4IIE rat hepatoma pGudluc cells and an EROD induction assay with RTL-W1 rainbow trout liver cells. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The bioassays showed that the sludge contained AhR agonists at levels of TCDD equivalents (TEQs) higher than other sludge types in Sweden. In addition, the TEQ values for the acid resistant fractions increased considerably after anaerobic digestion, resulting in an apparent formation of acid resistant TEQs in the anaerobic reactors. Similar results have been reported from studies of fermented household waste. There was a large difference in effects between the two bioassays, with higher TEQ levels in the RTL-W1 EROD assay than in the DR-CALUX assay. This is possibly due to a more rapid metabolism in rat hepatocytes than in trout hepatocytes or to differences in sensitivities for the AhR agonists in the sludge. It was also demonstrated by GC/FID analysis that the sludge contained high concentrations of nitroaromatics. It is suggested that nitroaromatic metabolites, such as aromatic amines and nitroanilines, are possible candidates for the observed bioassay effects. It was also found that the AhR agonists in the sludge samples were volatile. CONCLUSIONS: The sludge contained fairly high concentrations of volatile AhR agonists. The increase of acid resistant AhR agonist after anaerobic digestion warrants further investigations of the chemical and toxic properties of these compounds and of the mechanisms behind this observation. RECOMMENDATION AND OUTLOOK: This study has pointed out the benefits of using different types of mechanism-specific bioassays when evaluating the change in toxicity by sludge treatment, in which measurement of dioxin-like activity can be a valuable tool. In order to study the recalcitrant properties of the compounds in the sludge using the DR-CALUX assay, the exposure time can be varied between 6 and 24 hours. The properties of the acid-resistant AhR agonists formed in the anaerobic treatment have to be investigated in order to choose the most appropriate method for sludge management.     

Density patterns of gall mites (Acarina:Eriophyidae) in a polluted area

Trends in the densities of six species of gall mites on European aspen (Populus tremula) and on two birch species (Betula pubescens and B. pendula) were compared in an air pollution gradient from the Harjavalta copper-nickel smelter, SW Finland. The densities of gall mites on both birch species decreased towards the smelter and were negatively correlated with the levels of copper and nickel in the birch leaves. In contrast, the densities of aspen mites correlated neither with distance from the pollution source nor with the content of heavy metals in aspen leaves. Both birch and aspen trees tended to produce smaller leaves near the smelter, but a significant correlation between gall mite densities and site-specific leaf areas was only found for one species of mite.     

Residential indoor,outdoor, and workplace concentrations of carbonyl compounds: relationships with personal exposure concentrations and correlation with sources

Personal 48-hr exposures of 15 randomly selected participants as well as microenvironment concentrations in each participant's residence and workplace were measured for 16 carbonyl compounds during summer-fall 1997 as a part of the Air Pollution Exposure Distributions within Adult Urban Populations in Europe (EXPOLIS) study in Helsinki, Finland. When formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were excluded, geometric mean ambient air concentrations outside each participant's residence were less than 1 ppb for all target compounds. Geometric mean residential indoor concentrations of carbonyls were systematically higher than geometric mean personal exposures and indoor workplace concentrations. Additionally, residential indoor/outdoor ratios indicated substantial indoor sources for most target compounds. Carbonyls in residential indoor air correlated significantly, suggesting similar mechanisms of entry into indoor environments. Overall, this study demonstrated the important role of non-traffic-related emissions in the personal exposures of participants in Helsinki and that comprehensive apportionment of population risk to air toxics should include exposure concentrations derived from product emissions and chemical formation in indoor air.     

In situ anion diffusion experiments using radiotracers

Diffusion experiments in compacted bentonite have been carried out in situ using the borehole laboratory CHEMLAB. The "ordinary" anion iodide and the redox-sensitive pertechnetate ion have been investigated. In spite of strongly reducing groundwater conditions, technetium was found to diffuse mostly unreduced as TcO4-, although in some spots in the compacted clay, the activity was significantly higher, which may be explained by reduction of some TcO4- by iron-containing minerals in the bentonite. The measured concentration profiles in the clay cannot be accommodated by assuming one single diffusion process. The experimental data are modeled assuming two diffusion paths, intralamellar diffusion and diffusion in external water. The apparent diffusivity for the intralamellar diffusion was found to be 8.6 x 10(-11) m2 s(-1) for iodide with a capacity factor of 0.1, while the apparent diffusivity for the diffusion in external water was found to be 5 x 10(-14) m2 s(-1) with alpha=2.26. The corresponding values for Tc were found to be Da= 6 x 10(-11) m2 s(-1), alpha=0.1 and Da= 1 x 10(-13) m2 s(-1), alpha=0.46, respectively. The diffusion constants and capacity factors obtained in this study are in accordance with data from laboratory experiments.     

Levels of DDT and PCB's in different stages of life cycle of the Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea and the herring gull Larus argentatus

∑DDT and PCB levels were analysed in samples of arctic terns and herring gulls collected in the archipelago of southwestern Finland. Special attention was paid to the levels at various stages of the life cycle and in different sexes. The levels were nearly ten times higher in the herring gull. The highest loads were found in adult birds and in newly hatched chicks but the levels were much lower (only 7–12 % in the herring gull) in chicks just before fledgling. The levels in young gulls remained low until the end of August at least. Therefore it is plausible that the high levels found in adult gulls are a consequence of their wintering in the southern Baltic.The levels of ∑DDT and PCB residues were significantly lower in female arctic terns than in male terns. Differences between the sexes were small in the herring gull. Thus it is possible that the female of the arctic tern is able to release pollutants, especially PCB residues, more effectively into eggs than the female of the herring gull. The biochemical mechanisms involved are not clear but a possible explanation may be different lipoprotein structures in the eggs of the species.     

Do fixed-term workers have a higher injury rate?

One of the most remarkable changes in the labour markets of industrialised countries has been the increase of fixed-term employment. Naturally, the ways in which this development impacts on the quality of working life has awoken increasing scientific discussion. The aim of this paper is to examine these connections from the perspective of occupational injury. The majority of research literature in this field has shown that fixed-term workers have a risk of occupational injury that is several times higher than permanent workers.The analysis presented here is based on three large independent statistical data sets. In the Work and Health Study 10.9% of fixed-term and 10.0% of permanent workers experienced occupational injury during the previous 12 months. In The Victim Survey of Finland 5.4% of fixed-term and 6.5% of permanent workers were injured at work. In The Quality of Working Life Survey 3% of fixed-term and 5% of permanent workers were involved in occupational injury. These three data sets showed unanimously that fixed-term workers did not have a higher occupational injury rate than permanent workers. The most important explanatory factor was that in Finland fixed-term contracts are concentrated in public services such as education and health care with a predominance of female workers. Still, the connection remained after adjusting the basic background variables of age, socio-economic status and industry.     

Industrial ecology flows of agriculture and food industry in Finland: utilizing by-products and wastes

Although half of the administrative units in China are said to have implemented their local Agenda 21, the promotion of sustainable communities is not pervasive. In this paper, we adopted a relatively untried mode of analysis and a socio-economic context to illustrate the potentials and failures of China's grassroots local government bodies in achieving sustainable waste management. Our study shows that, among the three main functions of sustainable waste management (ensuring environmental hygiene, provision of recycling logistics and changing the consumption pattern of the local community) for local governments, grassroots local government bodies in mainland China are only able to do the minimum, i.e. ensuring environmental hygiene and handling complaints. One of the reasons for the failure is that, despite the emphasis on capacity building in China's Agenda 21, the reality is that no action is taken to empower grassroots local government. Despite the high profile accorded by the Chinese central government to motivating local governments to formulate their own Agenda 21, local sustainability and waste management performance have little relevance to the appraisal systems of these government agents.     

Explosions of carbon black and propane hybrid mixtures

Explosions of hybrid mixtures, i.e. mixtures containing more than one combustible phase, are not well understood. Most studies in this area involve mixtures of common dusts and gases, such as coal and methane, or polyethylene and ethylene. The present work focuses on explosions of carbon black particles, i.e. almost pure carbon with a very low content of volatiles: this makes the process of explosion less intense. However, addition of some quantities of combustible gases (here: propane) may sustain combustion processes. Another important issue is the fact that the carbon black particles are smaller in size than most dusts encountered in the process industry. The experiments were carried out in a 20-L explosion vessel and the analysis of the results focuses on the maximum explosion pressures and the maximum rates of pressure rise as a function of carbon black and propane concentrations. In addition, some samples of unburnt dust were collected and analysed with a scanning electron microscope and with thermo-gravimetric analysis.