Myrmecophily provides various examples of how social structures can be overcome to exploit vast and well-protected resources.
Ant nest beetles (Paussinae) are particularly well suited for ecological and evolutionary considerations in the context of
association with ants because life habits within the subfamily range from free-living and predatory in basal taxa to obligatory
myrmecophily in derived Paussini. Adult Paussini are accepted in the ant society, although parasitising the colony by preying
on ant brood. Host species mainly belong to the ant families Myrmicinae and Formicinae, but at least several paussine genera
are not host-specific. Morphological adaptations, such as special glands and associated tufts of hair (trichomes), characterise
Paussini as typical myrmecophiles and lead to two different strategical types of body shape: while certain Paussini rely on
the protective type with less exposed extremities, other genera access ant colonies using glandular secretions and trichomes
(symphile type). We compare these adaptations with other taxonomic groups of insects by joining contemporary research and
early sources and discuss the possibility of an attracting or appeasing effect of the secretion. Species that are ignored
by their host ants might use chemical mimicry instead. Furthermore, vibrational signals may contribute to ant–beetle communication,
and chemical signals have proven to play a role in host finding. The powerful defense chemistry of paussines as “bombardier
beetles” is not used in contact with host ants. We attempt to trace the evolution of myrmecophily in paussines by reviewing
important aspects of the association between paussine beetles and ants, i.e. morphological and potential chemical adaptations,
life cycle, host specificity, alimentation, parasitism and sound production.
Spiders have been suspected to be one of the most important groups of natural enemies of insects worldwide. To document the impact of the global spider community as insect predators, we present estimates of the biomass of annually killed insect prey. Our estimates assessed with two different methods suggest that the annual prey kill of the global spider community is in the range of 400–800 million metric tons (fresh weight), with insects and collembolans composing >90% of the captured prey. This equals approximately 1‰ of the global terrestrial net primary production. Spiders associated with forests and grasslands account for >95% of the annual prey kill of the global spider community, whereas spiders in other habitats are rather insignificant contributors over a full year. The spider communities associated with annual crops contribute less than 2% to the global annual prey kill. This, however, can be partly explained by the fact that annual crop fields are “disturbed habitats” with a low buildup of spider biomass and that agrobiont spiders often only kill prey over short time periods in a year. Our estimates are supported by the published results of exclusion experiments, showing that the number of herbivorous/detritivorous insects and collembolans increased significantly after spider removal from experimental plots. The presented estimates of the global annual prey kill and the relative contribution of spider predation in different biomes improve the general understanding of spider ecology and provide a first assessment of the global impact of this very important predator group. 相似文献
Flower symmetry is considered a species-specific trait and is categorized in asymmetry, actinomorphic symmetry, bisymmetry and zygomorphic symmetry. Here we report on the intra-individual variation of flower symmetry in the genus Saxifraga and the influence of light, gravity and intrinsic factors on the development of flower symmetry. We tested five species—Saxifraga cuneifolia, Saxifraga imparilis, Saxifraga rotundifolia, Saxifraga stolonifera and Saxifraga umbrosa—concerning six flower parameters—angles between petals, petal length, petal pigmentation, angular position of carpels, movement of stamens and (only for S. imparilis and S. stolonifera) the length of the two lower elongated petals in regard to their position towards the stem. Specimens of all species were tested on a vertical clinostat as a gravity compensator, on a horizontal clinostat as a light incidence compensator and on a stationary control. The results show that the angle of incident light has no apparent impact on flower symmetry, whereas gravity affects the angular position of petals in S. cuneifolia and S. umbrosa and the petal colouration in S. rotundifolia. In S. cuneifolia and S. umbrosa, the absence of directional gravity resulted in the development of actinomorphic flowers, whereas the corresponding control flowers were zygomorphic. The development of flowers in S. rotundifolia was not altered by this treatment. The length of the two elongated petals in S. stolonifera and S. imparilis was not affected by gravity, but rather was determined by position of the flower within the inflorescence and resulted in asymmetrical flowers. 相似文献
The use of molecular tools, principally qPCR, versus traditional culture-based methods for quantifying microbial parameters (e.g., Fecal Indicator Organisms) in bathing waters generates considerable ongoing debate at the science–policy interface. Advances in science have allowed the development and application of molecular biological methods for rapid (~2 h) quantification of microbial pollution in bathing and recreational waters. In contrast, culture-based methods can take between 18 and 96 h for sample processing. Thus, molecular tools offer an opportunity to provide a more meaningful statement of microbial risk to water-users by providing near-real-time information enabling potentially more informed decision-making with regard to water-based activities. However, complementary studies concerning the potential costs and benefits of adopting rapid methods as a regulatory tool are in short supply. We report on findings from an international Working Group that examined the breadth of social impacts, challenges, and research opportunities associated with the application of molecular tools to bathing water regulations. 相似文献
The response of soil respiration (Rs) to nitrogen (N) addition is one of the uncertainties in modelling ecosystem carbon (C). We reported on a long-term nitrogen (N) addition experiment using urea (CO(NH2)2) fertilizer in which Rs was continuously measured after N addition during the growing season in a Chinese pine forest. Four levels of N addition, i.e. no added N (N0: 0 g N m−2 year−1), low-N (N1: 5 g N m−2 year−1), medium-N (N2: 10 g N m−2 year−1), and high-N (N3: 15 g N m−2 year−1), and three organic matter treatments, i.e. both aboveground litter and belowground root removal (LRE), only aboveground litter removal (LE), and intact soil (CK), were examined. The Rs was measured continuously for 3 days following each N addition application and was measured approximately 3–5 times during the rest of each month from July to October 2012. N addition inhibited microbial heterotrophic respiration by suppressing soil microbial biomass, but stimulated root respiration and CO2 release from litter decomposition by increasing either root biomass or microbial biomass. When litter and/or root were removed, the “priming” effect of N addition on the Rs disappeared more quickly than intact soil. This is likely to provide a point of view for why Rs varies so much in response to exogenous N and also has implications for future determination of sampling interval of Rs measurement.
Using the focusing event framework, a comprehensive analysis of private households’ and businesses’ preparedness was undertaken in the aftermath of the 2002 and 2006 flood events on the Elbe River in Germany. In August 2002, preparedness of households (n = 235) and businesses (n = 103) was low: 30% of the households and 54% of the businesses took no precautionary measures before the flood event. Many undertaken emergency measures were ineffective, since only 26% of all households knew how to react when the flood warning came, and only 9% of businesses had an emergency plan in place. Due to this extreme flood, double-loop learning occurred in many households and businesses, so that many did implement precautionary measures. The distribution of adopted precautionary measures for households fits well to Preisendörfer’s low-cost hypothesis, but does not apply for businesses. Only 10% of the households (n = 112), but still 29% of the businesses (n = 41) were unprepared before the flood in 2006. Significant improvement in flood preparedness activities is still necessary. Particularly for businesses, regulatory programs and programs encouraging proactive behaviour should be implemented. The focusing event framework proofed to be a useful tool for a differentiated analysis of the responses to and learning due to a disaster also in the commercial and private sector. 相似文献
Based on multi-year measurements of CH4 exchange in sub-daily resolution we show that clear-cutting of a forest in Southern Germany increased soil temperature and moisture and decreased CH4 uptake. CH4 uptake in the first year after clear-cutting (−4.5 ± 0.2 μg C m−2 h−1) was three times lower than during the pre-harvest period (−14.2 ± 1.3 μg C m−2 h−1). In contrast, selective cutting did not significantly reduce CH4 uptake. Annual mean uptake rates were −1.18 kg C ha−1 yr−1 (spruce control), −1.16 kg C ha−1 yr−1 (selective cut site) and −0.44 kg C ha−1 yr−1 (clear-cut site), respectively. Substantial seasonal and inter-annual variations in CH4 fluxes were observed as a result of significant variability of weather conditions, demonstrating the need for long-term measurements. Our findings imply that a stepwise selective cutting instead of clear-cutting may contribute to mitigating global warming by maintaining a high CH4 uptake capacity of the soil. 相似文献
Simulations with the process oriented Forest-DNDC model showed reasonable to good agreement with observations of soil water contents of different soil layers, annual amounts of seepage water and approximated rates of nitrate leaching at 79 sites across Germany. Following site evaluation, Forest-DNDC was coupled to a GIS to assess nitrate leaching from German forest ecosystems for the year 2000. At national scale leaching rates varied in a range of 0–>80 kg NO3–N ha−1 yr−1 (mean 5.5 kg NO3–N ha−1 yr−1). A comparison of regional simulations with the results of a nitrate inventory study for Bavaria showed that measured and simulated percentages for different nitrate leaching classes (0–5 kg N ha−1 yr−1:66% vs. 74%, 5–15 kg N ha−1 yr−1:20% vs. 20%, >15 kg N ha−1 yr−1:14% vs. 6%) were in good agreement. Mean nitrate concentrations in seepage water ranged between 0 and 23 mg NO3–N l−1. 相似文献