Larval development in the Antarctic nemertean Parborlasia corrugatus (Heteronemertea: Lineidae)

Embryonic and larval development were followed from fertilisation to settlement in the Antarctic heteronemertean Parborlasia corrugatus (McIntosh, 1876). The first cleavage occurred 10 to 15 h after fertilisation, and the second at 17 h. Larvae hatched at the gastrula stage, between 170 and 200 h post-fertilisation, and were 150 m in diameter. Early larval stages aggregated in dense groups near the surface of incubation vessels and were positively phototactic. Early pilidium larvae were recognisable 435 h post-fertilisation. They were 155×152 m in size, and possessed a complete apical tuft of cilia and a full marginal band of locomotory cilia. At this stage, the gust was visible through the body wall, and the mouth was open and was 40 m in diameter. Late pilidia, 222×193 m in size, were helmet-shaped. They had an apical tuft over 100 m long, and possessed a lobed marginal band of locomotory cilia. Pilidia were observed aggregating close to the bottom of incubation vessels 1200 to 1350 h (50 to 56 d) after fertilisation, and this was interpreted as settlement behaviour. At this stage, the apical tuft had been lost and they were highly contractile, being capable of compressing their bodies. However, neither developing juveniles within the larval envelope nor hatched juveniles were observed. Pilidia consumed the microalgae Tetraselmis suecica, Thalassiosira pseudonana and Isochrysis galbana. They also fed on particulate organic material < 1 m in size, as shown by the presence of material in the guts of larvae offered filtered extracts of algal cultures. There was some indication that larvae could use dissolved organic material, since pilidia held in seawater with organic material removed did not survive as long as those in filtered seawater or in filtered water with added amino acids. However, the only larvae to exhibit settlement behaviour in the feeding experiments were those offered Tetraselmis succica and Thalassiosira pseudonana, and these required a longer development time to reach this stage than pilidia in the standard cultures, where a mixed algal diet was offered.     

Relation between heavy metal concentrations in salt marsh plants and soil

The aim of the research reported here was to investigate the relation between heavy metal concentrations in salt marsh plants, extractability of the metals from soil and some soil characteristics. In April 1987, Spartina anglica and Aster tripolium plants and soil were collected from four salt marshes along the Dutch coast. The redox potential of the soil between the roots of the plants and at bare sites was measured. Soil samples were oven-dried and analyzed for chloride concentration, pH, fraction of soil particles smaller than 63 microm (f < 63 microm), loss on ignition (LOI) and ammonium acetate and hydrochloric acid extractable Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations. The roots and shoots of the plants were analyzed for Cd, Cu and Zn. Because drying of the soil prior to chemical analysis might have changed the chemical speciation of the metals, and therefore the outcome of the ammonium acetate extraction, a second survey was performed in October 1990. In this survey A. tripolium plants and soil were collected from two salt marshes. Fresh and matched oven-dried soil samples were analyzed for water, ammonium acetate and diethylene triaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) extractable Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations. The soil samples were also analyzed for f < 63 microm, LOI and total (HNO(3)/HCl digestion) metal concentrations. Soil metal concentrations were correlated with LOI. Drying prior to analysis of the soil had a significant effect on the extractability of the metals with water, ammonium acetate or DTPA. Plant metal concentrations significantly correlated only with some extractable metal concentrations determined in dried soil samples. However, these correlations were not consistently better than with total metal concentrations in the soil. It was concluded that extractions of metals from soil with water, ammonium acetate or DTPA are not better predictors for metal concentrations in salt marsh plants than total metal concentrations, and that a major part of the variation in metal concentrations in the plants cannot be explained by variation in soil composition.     

Seasonal changes in an intertidal community affected by sewage pollution

Seasonal changes in structure of a rocky intertidal community affected by sewage pollution at Quequén (Argentina) were studied over a period of 2 years. Most species showed a decrease in cover values in the polluted area. On the other hand, a small proportion of organisms favoured by organic enrichment predominated around the outfall during the period of study. Community structure was not significantly altered by frosts or windstorms. Desiccation is identified as the main physical stress. A combination of late spring high temperatures with extreme midday low-tides caused by northerly winds was responsible for heavy losses in dominant algae. Major seasonal changes in community structure were primarily due to variations in area covered by the chlorophyte Ulva lactuca, and crusts of blue-green algae and diatoms in the vicinity of the outfall. Highest diversity values were attained during either late winter or spring, due to increased abundances of several seasonal algae. Abundance of the dominant organism, the bivalve Brachidontes rodriguezi, remained stable, showing only slight, non-seasonal, changes. Since the absence of B. rodriguezi is an indication of heavy pollution, temporal stability of this species suggests that the intensity of sewage discharges did not vary over the period of study.     

Scavenging of atmospheric formaldehyde by wet precipitation

Despite the great importance that formaldehyde has in atmospheric photochemistry, few studies have been reported on rain water. In this paper, concentrations of HCHO in rain fractions within rain events are presented. Two sampling sites were chosen: one at Mexico City, a great polluted urban area, and the second at Rancho Viejo, a forested area under the meteorological influence of the city. The results show a general decrease during the early portion of the rain event. This seems to indicate that below-cloud scavenging is the most important mechanism while, from the small variations observed in the latter portion of the rainfall, it is possible to assume within-cloud scavenging as the predominant mechanism. Using the HCHO concentrations in rain water, the mixing ratios were estimated for the two sampling sites. The values were 0.68 ppb and 0.44 ppb at Mexico City and Rancho Viejo, respectively. Measurements at ground level in Mexico City gave a mean HCHO concentration in air of 24 ppb, much higher than the estimated mixing ratio. The high levels of HCHO found in ambient air and in rain water reflect anthropogenic emissions as the potential atmospheric sources.     

Susceptibility of different yeast species to environmental toxic metals

The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate the relative resistance of yeast species to various metallic and metalloid ions, with a view to gaining more knowledge on this subject, as resistant species may become dominant in habitats contaminated with the relevant metals. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis were grown in media containing different concentrations of mercury (as HgCl(2)), cadmium (as CdCl(2)), lead (as Pb(CH(3)COO)(2)), arsenic (as Na(2)HAsO(4)) and selenium (as Na(2)SeO(3)) for various intervals. Invariably, the two Candida species turned out to be more resistant to all the metals studied than S. cerevisiae. The metal showing the highest toxicity for these species was mercury, with cadmium being the second, lead, the third and arsenic and selenium being the least toxic elements. Strains showing resistance to mercury were isolated, even in the case of S. cerevisiae.     

Does the cost of polygyny in house wrens include reduced male assistance in defending offspring?

Summary This study investigated whether reduced male aid in defending offspring potentially reduces the fitness of females choosing already-mated males in the house wren (Troglodytes aedon), a small, territorial songbird. Frozen snakes were placed at 23 nests of monogamously mated males and 12 secondary nests of bigamously mated males. All presentations were made during incubation stages of females attending focal nests. Snakes were placed at nests of secondary females when nests of their primary counterparts contained young 5–9 days old. Males are most attentive to primary nests during this period and should therefore be relatively inattentive to secondary mates and nests. Nevertheless, an equal proportion of monogamous and bigamous males discovered snakes within 15 min, and mean time to discovery, when discovery occurred, did not differ with nest status. Monogamous and bigamous males were also equally likely to attack snakes physically once discovered. Monogamous males appeared no more likely to discover snakes than bigamous males for two main reasons. First, although monogamous males were near focal nests (i.e., < 10 m) more often than bigamous males, monogamous males tended to stay out of view of nests for long periods. In contrast, bigamous males always went immediately to focal nests upon arriving in their vicinity. Second, about one-third of monogamous males in this study spent much of their time during trials at the far edges of their territories advertising for secondary mates. Our experiment suggests that reduced male aid in defending nests against small, diurnal predators probably does not contribute to the cost of polygyny in house wrens. Correspondence to: L.S. Johnson     

Constraints on group size in primates and carnivores: population density and day-range as assays of exploitation competition

Summary We hypothesise that foraging group size (FGS) and population group size (PGS) in primates and carnivores are related to quantifiable variables indexing the intensity of exploitative competition. Group size is predicted to increase with both food density and travel capabilities, as estimated by the constraint-free day-range (DR_s), i.e. the day-range of a solitary individual uninfluenced by competition from conspecifics. We test this exploitation competition hypothesis among primates and carnivores, using data on populations, species and genera. Food density was indexed by population density. Where DR_s could be estimated by regression it was found to be correlated with observed day-range (DR_m). DR_s was therefore indexed by DR_m in all species. Population density and DR_m were associated with each other, but in a multiple regression each variable contributed independently to explaining variation in group size. PGS was predicted better than FGS, but regressions involving either measure of group size were significant in all analyses. The multiple regression analyses were validated by the method of linear contrasts, which accounts for possible lack of independence among taxa. We conclude that species differences in group size are influenced by both food density and DR_s. This suggests that variation in the intensity of exploitation competition is partly responsible for differences in group size.Correspondence to: R.W. Wrangham     

Locomotory behaviour and swimming performance of the Norway lobster,Nephrops norvegicus,in the presence of an acoustic tag

Observations have been made on the locomotory behaviour and swimming performances of the Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus (L.), fitted with an acoustic transmitter ventrally under the cephalothorax. The walking behaviour of adult males (44 mm carapace length) appeared to be unaffected, but the tag caused significant reductions in certain measures of tail-flip swimming performance such as swimming speed and endurance. Flume-tank experiments in low water currents suggested that the transmitter would increase hydrodynamic drag during swimming by 9 to 32%, depending on lobster size. Given the weight and dimensions of the acoustic transmitters currently available, it is considered advisable to confine acoustic tracking studies to relatively large N. norvegicus.Correspondence to: C. J. Chapman     

Population dynamics of Mytilicola intestinalis in Mytilus edulis in south west England

The population dynamics of Mytilicola intestinalis Steuer in mussels (Mytilus edulis L.) from the River Lynher, Cornwall, England, have been studied over 3 years. By transplanting uninfested mussels from the River Erme, South Devon, into the Lynher mussel bed, the study was extended to the growth and development of new infestations under natural conditions. Female Mytilicola intestinalis are shown to breed twice, and two generations of parasites coexist for most of the year, with recruitment taking place in summer and autumn. One generation contributes its first brood to the autumn recruits before overwintering and contributing its second brood to the following summer's recruits. The other generation overwinters as juvenile and immature stages to contribute its two broods successively to the summer and autumn recruits. Environmental temperatures are believed to control the rates of development at all stages rather than acting as triggers in the onset or cessation of breeding at specific times. There is no evidence to support the contention that heavily infested mussels are killed, and parasite mortality is shown to be density-independent.