A life-cycle comparison of alternative automobile fuels

We examine the life cycles of gasoline, diesel, compressed natural gas (CNG), and ethanol (C2H5OH)-fueled internal combustion engine (ICE) automobiles. Port and direct injection and spark and compression ignition engines are examined. We investigate diesel fuel from both petroleum and biosources as well as C2H5OH from corn, herbaceous bio-mass, and woody biomass. The baseline vehicle is a gasoline-fueled 1998 Ford Taurus. We optimize the other fuel/powertrain combinations for each specific fuel as a part of making the vehicles comparable to the baseline in terms of range, emissions level, and vehicle lifetime. Life-cycle calculations are done using the economic input-output life-cycle analysis (EIO-LCA) software; fuel cycles and vehicle end-of-life stages are based on published model results. We find that recent advances in gasoline vehicles, the low petroleum price, and the extensive gasoline infrastructure make it difficult for any alternative fuel to become commercially viable. The most attractive alternative fuel is compressed natural gas because it is less expensive than gasoline, has lower regulated pollutant and toxics emissions, produces less greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and is available in North America in large quantities. However, the bulk and weight of gas storage cylinders required for the vehicle to attain a range comparable to that of gasoline vehicles necessitates a redesign of the engine and chassis. Additional natural gas transportation and distribution infrastructure is required for large-scale use of natural gas for transportation. Diesel engines are extremely attractive in terms of energy efficiency, but expert judgment is divided on whether these engines will be able to meet strict emissions standards, even with reformulated fuel. The attractiveness of direct injection engines depends on their being able to meet strict emissions standards without losing their greater efficiency. Biofuels offer lower GHG emissions, are sustainable, and reduce the demand for imported fuels. Fuels from food sources, such as biodiesel from soybeans and C2H5OH from corn, can be attractive only if the co-products are in high demand and if the fuel production does not diminish the food supply. C2H5OH from herbaceous or woody biomass could replace the gasoline burned in the light-duty fleet while supplying electricity as a co-product. While it costs more than gasoline, bioethanol would be attractive if the price of gasoline doubled, if significant reductions in GHG emissions were required, or if fuel economy regulations for gasoline vehicles were tightened.     

Determination of Q1, an unknown organochlorine contaminant, in human milk, Antarctic air, and further environmental samples

Q1, an organochlorine component with the molecular formula C(9)H(3)Cl(7)N(2) and of unknown origin was recently identified in seal blubber samples from the Namibian coast (southwest of Africa) and the Antarctic. In these samples, Q1 was more abundant than PCBs and on the level of DDT residues. Furthermore, Q1 was more abundant in seals from the Antarctic than the Arctic. To prove this assumption, gas chromatography-electron-capture negative ion mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-MS), which is sensitive and selective for Q1, allowed for screening of traces of Q1 even in samples with particularly high levels of other organochlorine contaminants. Q1 was isolated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) from a skua liver sample. A 1:1 mixture with trans-nonachlor in electron-capture detectors (ECDs) was used to determine the relative response factor with ECNI-MS. The ECNI-MS response of Q1 turned out to be 4.5 times higher than that of trans-nonachlor in an ECD. With GC/ECNI-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode, four Antarctic and four Arctic air samples were investigated for the presence of Q1. In the Antarctic air samples, Q1 levels ranged from 0.7 to 0.9 fg/m(3). In Arctic air samples, however, Q1 was below the detection limit (<0.06 fg/m(3) or 60 ag/m(3)). We also report on high Q1 levels in selected human milk samples (12-230 microg/kg lipid) and, therefore, suggested that the unknown Q1 is an environmental compound whose origin and distribution should be investigated in detail. Our data confirm that Q1 is a bioaccumulative natural organochlorine product. Detection of a highly chlorinated natural organochlorine compound in air and human milk is novel.     

Suitability of process-based tree growth models for addressing tree response to climate change

Empirical models of tree growth have been used for many years to predict timber yields and other properties of trees. However, such models rely on measured relationships between tree growth and historic environmental conditions. As anthropogenic actions alter the environment, especially atmospheric composition, empirical models become less reliable and process-based models become more useful. Process-based models are challenged to simulate growth of structurally and physiologically complex organisms using explicit mathematical expressions to capture growth response to environmental conditions. In this review we summarize the physiological requirements of process-based models and examine the capabilities of six published models (CARBON, ECOPHYS, PGSM, TREE-BGC, TREGRO, W91) for simulating tree response to changes in environmental conditions (elevated temperature, increased CO(2) concentration, and enhanced concentrations of tropospheric ozone). These analyses indicate that current models are reliable integrators of environmental effects on individual processes (e.g. photosynthesis), but may be less reliable where physiological acclimation occurs or when extrapolated to growth of specific tree compartments.     

Dynamics of radionuclide concentrations in calcified tissues of reindeer in the western Russian Arctic

The specific activities of artificial and natural nuclides were determined in bone and teeth of reindeer that had lived before, during, and after nuclear tests on the Archipelago Novaya Zemlya and of reindeer from the nearby mainland region. In bone of reindeer from Novaya Zemlya, 90Sr and 210Pb are the main source of beta-activity, the 210Po is the main source of the alpha activity. In bone of reindeer that lived on Novaya Zemlya during underground tests, the 90Sr activity was relatively high (0.75 +/- 0.20 Bq/g dry weight). In animals that lived after the tests were banned, the level was significantly lower (0.44 +/- 0.17 Bq/g) and did not differ from the level of the 90Sr activity found in the mainland reindeer bone. On Novaya Zemlya, the concentrations of the natural 210Pb in bone of the recent reindeer (0.57 +/- 0.19 Bq/g) is similar to that which was in the teeth of reindeer a hundred years ago (0.65-0.75 Bq/g) and significantly higher than in the recent mainland reindeer from different regions (0.18-0.17 Bq/g).     

Immunotoxicity risks associated with land-treatment of petrochemical wastes revealed using an in situ rodent model

Land-treatment of petrochemical wastes is a widely used method to dispose of hazardous and non-hazardous waste by biodegradation. However, no comprehensive assessment of the impact of such disposal techniques on terrestrial ecosystems has been conducted. Despite the presence of suspected immunotoxicants in the soil, wild rodents frequently reside on these waste sites after closure or abandonment. We explored the seasonal sensitivity of the immune system of the hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) to in situ exposures on sites land-treated with petrochemical wastes. Animals were monitored on five contaminated land-treatment sites and five ecologically matched-reference sites in Oklahoma, USA, over two seasons (summer and winter). Most hematological parameters were not adversely affected by land-treatment; however, platelet counts were 26% greater in cotton rats from land-treatment sites compared to reference sites in winter. Significant treatment-related differences were observed in total serum protein concentrations, organ mass and organ cellularity, but these differences were not consistent across the five land-treatment units. Lymphoproliferative responses of cotton rat splenocytes stimulated in vitro were elevated for a T-cell mitogen and depressed for a B-cell mitogen in animals from land-treatment compared to reference sites. The ability of splenocytes to proliferate in response to interleukin-2 receptor-binding was not influenced by treatment. Total yields of peritoneal cells, yield of peritoneal macrophages, and yield of peritoneal lymphocytes were influenced to varying degrees by land-treatment. Functionally, in vitro metabolic activity of peritoneal macrophages was 114% greater in cotton rats from land-treatment sites compared to reference sites during summer. These results indicate that petrochemical wastes applied to soils on these five land-treatment sites had variable immunomodulatory effects in resident cotton rats. Immune alterations for some assays were indicative of enhancement on some land-treatment sites while suppressive on other land-treatment sites, which could have been a function of type and concentration of immunotoxicants present on each site and highlights the uniqueness of each land-treatment site.     

Factors controlling the bioaccumulation of mercury and methylmercury by the estuarine amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus

The bioaccumulation of inorganic mercury (HgI) and monomethylmercury (MMHg) by benthic organisms and subsequent trophic transfer couples the benthic and pelagic realms of aquatic systems and provides a mechanism for transfer of sedimentary contaminants to aquatic food chains. Experiments were performed to investigate the bioavailability and bioaccumulation of particle-associated HgI and MMHg by the estuarine amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus to further understand the controls on bioaccumulation by benthic organisms. HgI and MMHg are particle reactive and have a strong affinity for organic matter, a potential food source for amphipods. Microcosm laboratory experiments were performed to determine the effects of organic matter on Hg bioaccumulation and to determine the major route of Hg uptake (i.e. sediment ingestion, uptake from water/porewater, or uptake from 'food'). Amphipods living in organic-rich sediment spiked with Hg accumulated less Hg than those living in sediments with a lower organic matter content. Feeding had a significant impact on the amount of HgI and MMHg accumulated. Similarly, amphipods living in water with little organic matter accumulated more Hg than those living in water with a greater percentage of organic matter. MMHg was more readily available for uptake than HgI. Experimental results, coupled with results from a bioaccumulation model, suggest that accumulation of HgI and MMHg from sediment cannot be accurately predicted based solely on the total Hg, or even the MMHg, concentration of the sediment, and sediment-based bioaccumulation factors. All routes of exposure need to be considered in determining the accumulation of HgI and MMHg from sediment to benthic invertebrates.     

Acute and chronic toxicity of veterinary antibiotics to Daphnia magna

The acute and chronic toxicity of nine antibiotics used both therapeutically and as growth promoters in intensive farming was investigated on the freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna. The effect of the antibiotics metronidazole (M), olaquindox (OL), oxolinic acid (OA), oxytetracycline (OTC), streptomycin (ST), sulfadiazine (SU), tetracycline (TC), tiamulin (TI) and tylosin (TY) was tested in accordance to the ISO (1989) and OECD (1996) standard procedures. The acute toxicities (48-h EC50 value, mg/l) in decreasing order were OA (4.6), TI (40), SU (221), ST (487), TY (680) and OTC (approximately 1000). NOECs were 340 mg/l for TC and 1000 mg/l for M and OL. Toxic effect on reproduction occurred generally at concentrations, which were one order of magnitude below the acute toxic levels. The chronic toxicity (EC50 values, mg/l) in the D. magna reproduction test in decreasing order were TI (5.4), SU (13.7), TC (44.8) and OTC (46.2). The NOECs (mg/l) obtained in the reproduction test with OA, ST, TY and M were 0.38 for OA, 32 for ST, 45 for TY and 250 for M. The observed toxicity of OA to D. magna indicates that this substance, which is a commonly used feed additive in fish farms, has a potential to cause adverse effects on the aquatic environment.     

First assessment of persistent organic pollutants in the Greater rhea (Rhea americana), a near-threatened flightless herbivorous bird of the Pampas grasslands

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are still globally distributed and can exert different effects on ecosystems. Little is known about the...     

Inflammation biomarkers associated with arsenic exposure by drinking water and respiratory outcomes in indigenous children from three Yaqui villages in southern Sonora,México

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Environmental arsenic exposure in adults and children has been associated with a reduction in the expression of club cell secretory protein (CC16) and...