A review of the state of research,policies and strategies in addressing leakage from reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+)

Leakage from policies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) must be monitored, measured and mitigated to ensure their effectiveness. This paper reviews research on leakage at the large (international and national) and small (subnational and project) scales to summarize what we already know, and highlight areas where research is urgently needed. Most (11 of 15) studies published until 2005 estimated leakage of fossil-fuel-based emissions from large-scale interventions such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol. Many studies on leakage from landuse-based emissions more relevant for REDD+ emerged afterwards (11 of 15), mostly focusing on smaller-scale interventions (8 of the 11 studies). There is a deficiency in qualitative studies showing how leakage develops from an intervention, and the factors influencing this process. In–depth empirical research is needed to understand activities and actors causing emissions (Emissions), the way those activities move spatially in response to policies (Displacement), the way policies affect carbon (C) emitting activities (Attribution) and the amount of resulting emissions produced (Quantification). The cart is thence before the horse: the knowledge necessary to form practical and accurate working definitions, typologies and characterizations of leakage is still absent. Despite this, there is a rush to measure, monitor and mitigate leakage. The concept of leakage has not matured enough, leading to vague definitions of leakage, its components, and scale. We suggest ways to improve the concept of leakage and argue for more empirical research and at various scales to add to our collective knowledge of Emissions, Displacement, Attribution and Quantification.     

THE FRESHWATER STREAM,A COMPLEX ECOSYSTEM1

A stream is set apart from all other aquatic ecosystems in that the water is continually entering and leaving the stream and is in almost constant motion. Thus, there is essentially a unidirectional flow, a constant mixing of the watery medium, a continuous erosion of the substrate with concomitant changes in the characteristics of the stream bed, and little or no opportunity for the accumulation and retention of the dissolved nutrients. The physical and chemical characteristics of the stream are largely reflections of the physical and chemical makeup of the watershed. Because of the constant replacement of the water as it flows away, new nutrients must be brought into the stream continually in order to support the biotic communities. The kinds and amounts of nutrients that enter the stream determine, to a large extent, the numbers and kinds of organisms in the different communities. The organisms that comprise those communities may be categorized as representative species indigenous to springs, riffles, and pools. Most plants in streams are sessile whereas most of the animals are vagile, at least during some phase of their life cycle. All sessile organisms must depend on the current bringing their foodstuffs to them, but the vagile forms may seek out their foods in different parts of the stream and may even move from one community to another. Each community is adapted to its particular environment. Spring communities, because of the constancy of the physical and chemical environment, may reach what is essentially a “climax” situation and remain stable over long periods of time. Communities that occupy riffle and pool habitats may change from season to season and from year to year depending on changes in temperature, volume of flow, and the character of the substrate. Between each of these kinds of communities there are transitional areas that may be occupied by wider varieties of organisms than any of the three principal kinds of communities. In any event, the continuity of these communities in time and space is determined by the speed of the current which in turn depends upon the volume of flow. On this basis it becomes evident that the characteristics of the biotic communities are different at the source of a stream than at any other location. Similarly, riffle communities are different than those living in pools. The most difficult evaluation to be made in studying a stream ecosystem is that of the interlocking relationships among the many kinds of organisms. The plants, whatever kind they may be, fix carbon and other elements into organic compounds that can be utilized as food by the animals. The multitude of organisms that make up the bottom fauna of any stream are largely supported by the food formed directly by the plants. Such animals as small crustaceans, insect larvae, worms, turbellarians, mollusks, and the like serve as food for the carnivorous species. To determine the role of each organism in maintaining such a complex structure is a tremendous challenge. Many tools and methods are at the disposal of the biologist who dares to undertake such a project. Still, the greatest of all these is the dedication to spending long hours of tedious and, frequently, very hard work.     

Assessment of relative accuracy in the determination of organic matter concentrations in aquatic systems

Accurate determinations of total (TOC), dissolved (DOC) and particulate (POC) organic carbon concentrations are critical for understanding the geochemical, environmental, and ecological roles of aquatic organic matter. Of particular significance for the drinking water industry, TOC measurements are the basis for compliance with US EPA regulations. The results of an interlaboratory comparison designed to identify problems associated with the determination of organic matter concentrations in drinking water supplies are presented. The study involved 31 laboratories and a variety of commercially available analytical instruments. All participating laboratories performed well on samples of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), a compound commonly used as a standard in carbon analysis. However, problems associated with the oxidation of difficult to oxidize compounds, such as dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid and caffeine, were noted. Humic substances posed fewer problems for analysts. Particulate organic matter (POM) in the form of polystyrene beads, freeze-dried bacteria and pulverized leaf material were the most difficult for all analysts, with a wide range of performances reported. The POM results indicate that the methods surveyed in this study are inappropriate for the accurate determination of POC and TOC concentration. Finally, several analysts had difficulty in efficiently separating inorganic carbon from KHP solutions, thereby biasing DOC results.     

Monitoring dissolved organic carbon in surface and drinking waters

The presence of natural organic matter (NOM) strongly impacts drinking water treatment, water quality, and water behavior during distribution. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were determined daily over a 22 month period in river water before and after conventional drinking water treatment using an on-line total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer. Quantitative and qualitative variations in organic matter were related to precipitation and runoff, seasons and operating conditions. Following a rainfall event, DOC levels could increase by 3.5 fold over baseflow concentrations, while color, UV absorbance values and turbidity increased by a factor of 8, 12 and 300, respectively. Treated water DOC levels were closely related to the source water quality, with an average organic matter removal of 42% after treatment.     

Integrated waste management via the Natural Laws

Summary The basic tools of engineering, energy and material balances and rate expressions, provide a pathway to apply the Natural Laws of Hazardous Waste for proper waste management. Overall, one must focus on nature's limits, which are discussed, using open minded engineering practices for proper waste management. By expansion of balance concepts beyond end-of-pipe and integrating concepts beyond basic life-cycles, as discussed in this paper, the true impact ofwaste management practices may be established. These cradle-to-grave balances are connected to nature's limits via results of recent work by others on risk assessment. The combination of approaches for evaluating concentration limits of chemicals in the environment allows the facility for an engineering solution for proper waste management. The method is presented by making example comparisons of choices of technology for recycling, storage, and site remediation.     

In situ capping design of a pyrite cinder pile in the St. Lawrence river for metal containment

A pile of pyrite cinders discharged from a former manufacturing facility rest upon the bottom of the St. Lawrence River adjacent to Clark Island. In situ capping was the selected remedy to control both the fine particle resuspension that produced a red mud cloud in the water, commonly formed on windy days, and the soluble metals concentrations originating from the pyrite pile. Metal mass balances around the pile allowed estimates of the pre‐capping release rates. Elevated concentrations above the pile were observed for eight metals; these included iron, lead, mercury, selenium, arsenic, copper, cadmium, and zinc. After iron, the highest concentration in the pyrite particles were cadmium and zinc present in the 1,000 mg/kg range. Mercury was the lowest at the 10 mg/kg level in the pyrite solids. For iron the soluble release rate was estimated to be 0.08 g/s, and the particle release was 0.8 to 1.2 g/s. A 30 cm cap consisting of particles 19 to 40 mm in diameter is proposed for the site. Its placement covers a ten‐hectare area and is expected to isolate the fine pyrite particles and prohibit their resuspension into the water column. Design estimates of steady state flux reduction efficiencies range from a low of 99.21 percent for iron to a high of 99.96 percent for copper. Breakthrough times to achieve these steady state flux reductions range from 100 to 3,800 years and metal porewater concentrations at 5 cm below the cap surface are estimated to be reduced by 83 percent. Although soluble metals will continue to be released from the pile zone, the flux of all the metals will be significantly reduced. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.