Effects of sulfide exposure history and hemolymph thiosulfate on oxygen-consumption rates and regulation in the hydrothermal vent crab Bythograea thermydron

The hydrothermal vent crab Bythograea thermydron is exposed to high environmental concentrations of sulfide and low levels of oxygen for extended periods of time. It has previously been shown that hydrogen sulfide is oxidized to the relatively non-toxic thiosulfate (S₂O ₃ ^2– ), which accumulates in the hemolymph. Hemolymph thiosulfate levels in freshly captured crabs vary significantly among crabs from different hydrothermal vent sites as well as between crabs from different microhabitats within the same site. Hemolymph thiosulfate concentrations were not significantly different between crabs captured at the same site 6 mo apart. Hemolymph thiosulfate concentrations ranged from 66 mol 1^–1 in a crab captured at a site with relatively low sulfide venting, to 3206 mol 1^–1 in an individual that was netted from an active smoker vent with much higher sulfide exposure. The differences in hemolymph thiosulfate between sites and the stability of hemolymph thiosulfate in crabs captured at the same site at different times suggest that sulfide exposure is significantly different between sites and that this exposure may not vary significantly over the course of a few months. B. thermydron experimentally exposed to sulfide had high levels of thiosulfate in their hemolymph and increased abilities to regulate oxygen consumption in conditions of low oxygen. This enhancement of regulatory abilities suggests that the previously demonstrated increased hemocyaninoxygen (Hc–O₂) affinity due to elevated thiosulfate may be adaptive in vivo. Average oxygen-consumption rates were much higher in crabs experimentally exposed to sulfide than in unexposed crabs. Crabs injected with isosmotic thiosulfate did not have increased oxygen-consumption rates as did the sulfide-exposed individuals, but did show a similar reduction in P _c (the critical partial pressure of oxygen at which crabs can no longer regulate oxygen consumption). This suggests that it is the sulfide exposure and/or detoxification rather than the elimination of thiosulfate that causes the increase in metabolic rate. Thiosulfate diffuses into dead crabs and into live crabs exposed to 15 mmol S₂O ₃ ^2- l^–1, indicating substantial permeability, and yet live crabs are able to eliminate thiosulfate when incubated in sea water containing 1.5 mmol S₂O ₃ ^2- l^–1, suggesting a process that has an active component.     

Genetic population structure of the recently introduced Asian clam,Potamocorbula amurensis,in San Francisco Bay

The genetic population structure of the recently introduced Asian clam, Potamocorbula amurensis, in San Francisco Bay was described using starch gel electrophoresis at eight presumptive loci. Specimens were taken from five environmentally distinct sites located throughout the bay. The population maintains a high degree of genetic variation, with a mean heterozygosity of 0.295, a mean polymorphism of 0.75, and an average of 3.70 alleles per locus. The population is genetically homogeneous, as evidenced from genetic distance values and F-statistics. However, heterogeneity of populations was indicated from a contingency chi-square test. Significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and heterozygote deficiencies were found at the Lap-1 locus for all populations and at the Lap-2 locus for a single population. High levels of variability could represent a universal characteristic of invading species, the levels of variability in the source population(s), and/or the dynamics of the introduction. Lack of differentiation between subpopulations may be due to the immaturity of the San Francisco Bay population, the general purpose phenotype genetic strategy of the species, high rates of gene flow in the population, and/or the selective neutrality of the loci investigated.     

Immunity in children with exposure to environmental lead: II. Effects on humoral immunity

Lead has been found to depress the immune system in animal studies at levels far below those responsible for overt toxicity. Literature studies in animal systems most clearly showed an effect of lead on response to a specific immunogenic stimulus. Data are sparse concerning the effects of lead on the immune system in the human population at greatest risk for exposure-children up to six years of age. This portion of the Phase I study reports concentrations of IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE, as well as antibody titers to the specific antigenic stimuli provided by the vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella. The study population consisted of a group of 193 children, ages 9 months to 6 years, who participate in the WIC (Women, Infants and Children) and Lead Poisoning Prevention Programs in the urban area of Springfield-Greene County Missouri. Blood lead levels ranged from 1 to 50 g dL^–1. Total Ig levels were determined and the data were analysed. No consistent significant differences were observed among the risk categories in the five age groups examined. A single Ig class in each of three age groups showed apparent significant differences among the various risk categories, but these differences were not correlated with blood lead. An analysis of specific antibody titers to diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella was performed. Regression analyses of current data in Phase I of this study suggest a detrimental effect of lead on the antibody titres to diphtheria and Rubella.     

Declines in organochlorines in eggs of red-breasted mergansers from Lake Michigan, 1977–1978 versus 1990

From 1977–1978 to 1990, concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and most organochlorine pesticides declined in eggs of red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) nesting on islands in northwestern Lake Michigan. Total PCBs decreased 60% (from 21 ppm in 1977–1978 to 8.5 ppm in 1990) and p,p-DDE decreased 66% (from 6.5 to 2.2 ppm). Dieldrin decreased only 16% (from 0.82 to 0.69 ppm). In 1990, 79.1% of incubated eggs hatched, which was not significantly different from the 83.5% that hatched in 1977–1978.The U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Book reviews

Cost Benefit Analysis of Environmental Change

Per‐Olov Johansson

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993, 232 pp., £13.95

Computerised Environmental Modelling: A Practical Introduction using Excel

J. Hardisty, D. M. Taylor & S. E. Metcalfe

Chichester, Wiley, 1993, 204 pp., £14.95

Keeping Pace with Science and Engineering: Case Studies in Environmental Regulation

Washington DC, US National Academy of Engineering, 1993

World Without End: Economics, Environment and Sustainable Development

D. W. Pearce & J. J. Warford

Oxford University Press, New York, 1993, 440 pp., £35.95     

Association between the mollusc bivalve Loripes lucinalis and a Chlamydia-like organism,with comments on its pathogenic impact,life cycle and possible mode of transmission

Loripes lucinalis is a littoral bivalve which has already been confirmed to harbour endo-cellular sulfur-oxidizing bacteria within its gills. Examination of the digestive gland of L. lucinalis collected from the Moulin Blanc Beach in the Bay of Brest (Brittany, France) revealed the existence of an additional association involving a Chlamydia-like organism. Three different forms of Chlamydia-like bacteria were observed: reticulate rod-shaped cells, electron-dense cells and enlarged cells. The reticulate rod-shaped cells and the electron-dense bodies are thought to represent the germinal initial body and infectious form of the bacteria, respectively. The enlarged cells were always associated with what are believed to be spherical or icosahedral phages. Initial infestation seems to occur by phagocytosis at the apical pole of the digestive cells of the tubule and duct epithelia. Within the host cell, the bacteria undergo binary fission and budding, forming an inclusion which gradually fills up the cell. Inclusions are generally between 15 and 30 m in size, and > 85% of all individuals examined possessed inclusion bodies. The level of infestation varied between individuals, some being heavily colonized, but did not seem to be related to season. Histological and ultrastructural observations suggest that, once developed, the colony has three possible fates: (1) the cells will degenerate due to phage infection; (2) colony overcrowding will occur, causing the development of electron-dense bodies that will be released into the lumen; (3) the entire membrane-bound inclusion will be released into the lumen and subsequently into the pallial cavity. Inclusions within the pallial cavity may be ingested by the host or may even be phagocytized by bacteriocyte cells of the gill. It is proposed that this association could be a form of symbiosis and that L. lucinalis may, therefore, be a rare example of an organism adapted to harbour two very different symbioses.     

Comparison of allozyme and mitochondrial DNA spatial differentiation in the limpet Patella vulgata

Allozyme and restriction enzyme analysis of mtDNA was used to study variation in samples from British populations of the marine limpet Patella vulgata in two regions. South Wales and Northeast England. Allozyme analysis revealed significant differences in allele frequencies among samples. However F _ST (population differentiation) values were no higher between than within regions, indicating that genetic heterogeneity was localised and not related to geographic separation. For mtDNA, samples from South Wales exhibited higher haplotype diversity values than samples from Northeast England. In addition there were substantial differences in the haplotype distribution between regions. The value of , the haploid analogoue of F _ST , was low within regions (=0.09) but high between regions (=0.44). The estimated difference in migration rate for allozymes and mtDNA exceed the neutral expectation, unless it is assumed that there are influential differences in the magnitude of female and male gametic dispersal.     

Induction of metamorphosis in larvae of the oyster Crassostrea gigas using neuroactive compounds

Chemical (neuroactive compounds at different concentrations and exposure times) and physical (water agitation, light) factors with potential effects on the metamorphosis of larvae of the oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg) larvae have been studied. The neurotransmitters l-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DO), epinephrine (EP), norepinephrine (NE), and acetylcholine (AC) have been identified as very active inducers of metamorphosis, whilst serotonin (SE), dopamine (DA) and potassium (K) were less effective inducers. The -aminobutyric acid (GA) and ammonium (AM) were found ineffective at the concentrations tested. Exposure to 10^-4 M EP for 15 min was sufficient to promote >80% metamorphosis within 48 h, whereas NE required 2 h to exert comparable induction. Maximum induction by DO (>50%) was achieved after 2 h exposure to 10^-4 M. However, unlike EP and NE, DO was lethal at that concentration in the long term. Maximum induction by AC (30% metamorphosis) was achieved at a concentration of 10^-4 M. In contrast to other neurotransmitters, AC induced settlement behaviour, cementation and eventual metamorphosis, yielding postlarvae which were all attached to the substratum. EP and NE triggered the morphogenetic changes, by-passing settlement and leading to postlarvae not cemented to the substratum. DO induced mostly attached spat at low concentrations (10^-5 M) and unattached spat at high concentrations (10^-4 M), and a similar pattern was apparent for the weaker inducers SE and DA. Regarding physical factors, a highly reflectant surface significantly increased the percentage of attached spat obtained, compared to a dark bottom. No consistent effect of water current or light was detected on the production of unattached spat. The three different forms of induction are discussed in relation to different regulatory pathways of settlement and metamorphosis.     

Interactions between copper and cadmium modify metal organ distribution in mature tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus

Sexually mature female tilapia were exposed to sublethal concentrations of waterborne Cu and/or Cd over 6 days, and subsequent body concentrations of these metals were determined in several organs. The results show that the distribution of Cu and Cd was metal and organ specific. This is demonstrated, for example, by the observation that in tilapia, Cu exposure did not result in Cu accumulation in the liver, whereas in the intestinal wall, notably high concentrations of Cu and Cd were measured in metal exposed fish. In addition to single metal exposed fish, we also determined Cu and Cd body distribution in Cu?Cd co-exposed fish. The observed interactions in metal accumulation were most pronounced in the organs of fish exposed to low, environmentally realistic, metal concentrations.     

Climate change in mountain regions: a marginal issue?

Summary Mountain regions comprise one-fifth of the world's land surface. They are home to a tenth and important in the lives of half of humankind. Yet mountains are often regarded as physically, politically and economically marginal; their importance has only recently been globally recognized. The potential impacts of climate change in mountain regions will vary considerably between different types of regions. These are briefly described, as an introduction to an evaluation of the potential impacts with regard to agriculture, forestry, water resources, tourism, energy, transport and health. It is concluded that climate change cannot be considered a marginal issue and that the ability of mountain and downstream people to adapt and respond in the long term will require attention to the maintenance and use of local knowledge and cooperative social networks, as well as considerable scientific research.Dr Martin Price obtained his Ph.D from the University of Colorado at Boulder, following a first degree at the University of Sheffield and an MSc from the University of Calgary, Canada. He is currently the Programme Leader for the Mountain Regions Programme at the Environmental Change Unit at the University of Oxford. This paper was presented at the Global Forum '94 Academic Conference and it represents a revision of an article by the author in Beniston (1994).