Forward collision warning system impact

Abstract

Objective: The objective of this research is to use historical crash data to evaluate the potential benefits of both high- and low-speed automatic emergency braking (AEB) with forward collision warning (FCW) systems.

Methods: Crash data from the NHTSA’s NASS–General Estimates System (GES) and Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) databases were categorized to classify crashes by the speed environment, as well as to identify cases where FCW systems would be applicable.

Results: Though only about 19% of reported crashes occur in environments with speeds greater than 45?mph, approximately 32% of all serious or fatal crashes occur in environments with speeds greater than 45?mph. The percentage of crashes where FCW systems would be relevant has remained remarkably constant, varying between about 21 and 26% from 2002 to 2015. In 2-vehicle fatal crashes where one rear-ends the other, the fatality rates are actually higher in the struck vehicle (33%) than the striking vehicle (26%). The disparity is even greater when considering size–class differences, such as when a light truck rear-ends a passenger car (15 vs. 42% fatality rates, respectively).

Conclusions: NHTSA and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) proposed the Automatic Emergency Braking Initiative in 2015, which is intended to make AEB (also called crash-imminent braking) with FCW systems standard on nearly all new cars by September 2022. Twenty automakers representing 99% of the U.S. auto market voluntarily committed to the initiative. Though the commitment to safety is laudable, the AEB component of the agreement only covers low-speed AEB systems, with the test requirements set to 24?mph or optionally as low as 12?mph. The test requirements for the FCW component of the agreement include 2 tests that begin at 45?mph. Only 21% of relevant serious injury or fatal accidents occur in environments at speeds under 24?mph, whereas about 22% of serious or fatal crashes occur in environments with speeds greater than 45?mph. This means that the AEB with FCW systems as agreed upon will cover only 21% of serious or fatal crashes and will not cover 22% of serious or fatal crashes. Because these systems are protective not only for the occupants of the vehicle where they are installed but also other vehicles on the roads, the data indicate that these systems should be a standard feature on all cars for high-speed as well as low-speed environments for the greatest social benefit.     

Place attachment,identification and environment perception: An empirical study

The relationship between people and places is characterized by affective and cognitive dimensions, defined, respectively, as place attachment and identification. This paper aims at clarifying differences between place attachment and identification by (1) identifying their predictors in a structural equation model and (2) exploring their association with the environmental perception. To this purpose, we conducted a research on a sample of 328 residents of a city in the north of Italy. Results show that the affective and the cognitive dimensions (1) are directly predicted by different demographical and psychosocial variables and (2) are strictly associated to the perception of the place and its inhabitants. Place attachment and identification are two distinct but correlated components. Semantic contents related to the environmental perception are described in respect to different levels of attachment and identification.     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the serum of US Air Force veterans in 2002

We measured levels of PCDDs, PCDFs, non-ortho, and mono-ortho substituted PCBs in 106 US Air Force Vietnam veterans, participants of the Air Force Health Study (AFHS) who attended the final medical examination in 2002. Twelve veterans were Ranch Hands involved in aerial spraying of herbicides in Vietnam (1962-1971), and 94 were Comparisons who flew transport missions in Southeast Asia (SEA) during the same time period. These veterans had no previous 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) measurement because they had not attended any of the previous AFHS examinations, or their previous measurements were missing or not valid. The mean TCDD levels in 2002 were 1.7 pg/g lipid in Comparisons and 5.5 pg/g lipid in Ranch Hands. The mean PCDD toxic equivalent - TEQ (1997) in Comparisons was 12.6 pg/g lipid, 5.4 pg/g lipid for PCDFs, 5.2 pg/g lipid for non-ortho PCBs, and 9.4 pg/g lipid for mono-ortho PCBs, with a total mean TEQ (1997) of 32.6 pg/g lipid. Corresponding mean TEQs in Ranch Hands were 15.5 pg/g lipid for PCDDs, 4.6 pg/g lipid for PCDFs, 2.2 pg/g lipid for non-ortho PCBs, and 9.3 pg/g lipid for mono-ortho PCBs, yielding the total mean TEQ (1997) of 31.6pg/g lipid. Using the re-evaluated 2005 WHO TEFs, the total mean TEQs (2005) decreased by about 28% in both Comparisons and Ranch Hands, to 23.6 pg/g lipid and 22.8 pg/g lipid, respectively. This was mainly due to changes of TEFs for the group of mono-ortho PCBs, which decreased the mono-ortho PCBs TEQs by almost 90% in both Ranch Hands and Comparisons.     

Upper temperature tolerances of some European molluscs. I Tellina fabula and T. tenuis

The upper temperature tolerances of two European species of Tellina from populations near the northern and southern limits of their geographical range are compared by means of median lethal temperature (LT₅₀), and median burial temperature (BT₅₀) determination for periods of exposure up to 96 h. The influence of previous acclimation temperature, and salinity within a limited range, on these determinations is also considered. T. fabula Gmelin, which is found in deeper water throughout its range, shows a lower thermal tolerance than T. tenuis da Costa. Both species display a significant effect of previous acclimation temperatures, the effect on the burrowing responses being greater than that shown by LT₅₀, and in both species the thermal tolerance of individuals from Mediterranean populations is greater than that of individuals from North Atlantic populations.     

Seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the bivalve Chlamys septemradiata from the Clyde Sea Area

Seasonal changes in the tissue weight and biochemical composition of the pectinid bivalve Chlamys septemradiata (Müller) from a station in the Cumbrae Deep, Clyde Sea Area (UK), were studied during 1969–1971. Separate analyses were made of three divisions of the tissues: the adductor muscle, the gonad, and the remaining tissues referred to as mantle. The composition of each of these divisions, and of the total tissues of an animal of standard size was calculated for each sampling date to give information on seasonal changes independent of shell growth. Increase in gonad weight took place mainly between March and May, although there was a slow increase during the winter months (November-March). Spawning in July and August resulted in a fall in gonad weight to very low levels in September and October. The female gonad contained a greater proportion of lipid than the male, and the male a greater proportion of nitrogen than the female, although the total calorific content was similar in both sexes. The adductor muscle showed a clear seasonal cycle of tissue weight and composition, and it was demonstrated that the adductor muscle tissues are a site for storage of reserves. The weight of the adductor muscle was maximal in October-November, and declined through the winter to reach minimum values in March. There was a steady increase during the summer. Lipid, carbohydrate and protein all contributed to the decrease in winter, in part contributing to gonad differentiation but mainly meeting the bivalve's metabolic maintenance requirements. The remaining tissues displayed some irregular fluctuations, but in general the changes showed an upward trend in weight until November followed by a general downward trend to March. The changes are compared with those for other bivalves from the same area.     

Effects and success factors of sustainable consumption policy instruments: a comparative assessment across Europe

Important knowledge gaps exist regarding the effects of policy instruments for sustainable consumption (SC) and success factors of such instruments. This article compares and summarizes the results of six case studies on the effects and success factors of SC instruments in the need areas of housing and food. While analysing different instrument types from four different European countries, all case studies were guided by the same analytical framework and mixed-methods approach. This synthesis article particularly emphasizes factors fostering the generation of instrument effects (outcomes and impacts) or hampering the creation of such effects, respectively. These factors include instrument goals and design, the accommodation of consumer needs, and the simultaneous addressing of framework conditions, as well as market context, policy interaction, and stakeholder involvement. The findings and conclusions can contribute to a better understanding of the conditions under which policy instruments can steer consumer behaviour towards sustainability.     

Seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the bivalve Abra alba from the Clyde Sea Area

Seasonal changes in the body weight and composition of Abra alba (W. Wood) from south of the Little Cumbrae in the Clyde Sea Area (UK) were studied during 1969–1971. The composition of a specimen of standard size was calculated for each sampling data to provide information on seasonal changes independent of shell growth. Increase in body weight took place rapidly in early summer as the gonad developed and reserves were built up. Spawning in July resulted in a fall in body weight, and this was followed by a slower fall during the autumn and winter as reserves were utilized. The changes are related to seasonal fluctuations in food availability and temperature, which are reflected in the amount of pigment (phaeophytin) retained in the tissues.     

Reproductive cycle of the brachiopodTerebratulina retusa on the west coast of Scotland

The reproductive cycles of two populations of the Recent articulate brachiopodTerebratulina retusa (Linnaeus) are described, based on samples taken between October 1985 and October 1986. Stereological analysis of the gonads revealed a single synchronised spawning event between late November and the end of January in the Firth of Lorn. In a second population, in Loch Fyne, spawning took place repeatedly throughout the spring and summer, with greatest spawning activity occurring in the late autumn.T. retusa from Loch Fyne were approximately three times more fecund than those from the Firth of Lorn. Productivity in the Clyde Sea area is approximately five times higher than in Firth of Lorn and higher fecundities and spawning frequencies of the Loch Fyne population are attributed, in part, to greater food availability. The initiation of gametogenesis appears to be mediated by the mobilisation of reserves stored in the outer mantle epithelium during the winter. Primary productivity increases dramatically in the spring and gametogenesis shows a corresponding increase.     

Seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the bivalve Lima hians from the Clyde Sea Area

Seasonal changes in the tissue weight and biochemical composition of the bivalve Lima hians (Gmelin) from a station in the Skelmorlie Bank, Clyde Sea Area, were studied during 1969–1971. The composition of an animal of standard size was calculated for each sampling date to give information on seasonal changes independent of shell growth. Increases in tissue weight took place between April and July as the gonad developed and reserves were built up. Between July and March tissue weight fell, at first rapidly as a result of spawning in the population, and later more slowly as reserves were utilized. Differentiation of the gonad began during the winter, at the expense of stored reserves, but was greatly accelerated during the spring due to increased food from the plankton. The lipid and nitrogen content of a standard animal rose to a pre-spawning maximum in July and then fell. Carbohydrate content also rose during this period, but continued to rise to reach maximum values in September. Carbohydrate and nitrogen both declined during the winter, but there was little indication of any net utilization of lipid during the winter months. The tissues of the ripe female contained more lipid than the male, and the tissues of the ripe male contained more nitrogen than those of the female. The total calorific content of the tissues of the male was greater than that of the female.