Urban tinkering

Cities are currently experiencing serious, multifaceted impacts from global environmental change, especially climate change, and the degree to which they will need to cope with and adapt to such challenges will continue to increase. A complex systems approach inspired by evolutionary theory can inform strategies for policies and interventions to deal with growing urban vulnerabilities. Such an approach would guide the design of new (and redesign of existing) urban structures, while promoting innovative integration of grey, green and blue infrastructure in service of environmental and health objectives. Moreover, it would contribute to more flexible, effective policies for urban management and the use of urban space. Four decades ago, in a seminal paper in Science, the French evolutionary biologist and philosopher Francois Jacob noted that evolution differs significantly in its characteristic modes of action from processes that are designed and engineered de novo (Jacob in Science 196(4295):1161–1166, 1977). He labeled the evolutionary process “tinkering”, recognizing its foundation in the modification and molding of existing traits and forms, with occasional dramatic shifts in function in the context of changing conditions. This contrasts greatly with conventional engineering and design approaches that apply tailor-made materials and tools to achieve well-defined functions that are specified a priori. We here propose that urban tinkering is the application of evolutionary thinking to urban design, engineering, ecological restoration, management and governance. We define urban tinkering as:

A mode of operation, encompassing policy, planning and management processes, that seeks to transform the use of existing and design of new urban systems in ways that diversify their functions, anticipate new uses and enhance adaptability, to better meet the social, economic and ecological needs of cities under conditions of deep uncertainty about the future.

This approach has the potential to substantially complement and augment conventional urban development, replacing predictability, linearity and monofunctional design with anticipation of uncertainty and non-linearity and design for multiple, potentially shifting functions. Urban tinkering can function by promoting a diversity of small-scale urban experiments that, in aggregate, lead to large-scale often playful innovative solutions to the problems of sustainable development. Moreover, the tinkering approach is naturally suited to exploring multi-functional uses and approaches (e.g., bricolage) for new and existing urban structures and policies through collaborative engagement and analysis. It is thus well worth exploring as a means of delivering co-benefits for environment and human health and wellbeing. Indeed, urban tinkering has close ties to systems approaches, which often are recognized as critical to sustainable development. We believe this concept can help forge much-closer, much-needed ties among engineers, architects, evolutionary ecologists, health specialists, and numerous other urban stakeholders in developing innovative, widely beneficial solutions for society and contribute to successful implementation of SDG11 and the New Urban Agenda.

     

The need for innovative strategies to improve immunisation services in rural Zimbabwe

Gokwe South, a rural district in Midlands Province, Zimbabwe, reported the lowest rate of immunisation coverage in the country in 2005: 55 per cent of children vaccinated with three doses of diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus vaccine (DPT3) and 35 per cent dropout between the first and third dose of DPT. In January 2007, the authors assessed local barriers to immunisation and proposed strategies to improve immunisation rates in the district, in the face of nationwide economic and political challenges. A situational analysis was performed to assess barriers to immunisation using focus-group discussions with health workers, key informant interviews with health management and community leaders, and desk reviews of records. Responses were categorised and solutions proposed. Health workers and key informants reported that immunisation service delivery was hampered by insufficient availability of gas for cold-chain equipment, limited transport and fuel to conduct basic activities, and inadequate staff and supervision. Improving coverage will require prioritising gas for vaccine cold-chain equipment, identifying reliable transportation or alternative transportation solutions, and increased staff, training and supervision. Local assessment is critical to pinpointing site-specific barriers, and innovative strategies are needed to overcome existing contextual challenges.     

Selected endocrine disrupting compounds (Vinclozolin,Flutamide, Ketoconazole and Dicofol): Effects on survival,occurrence of males,growth, molting and reproduction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Daphnia magna</Emphasis>

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: Pollution-induced endocrine disruption in vertebrates and invertebrates is a worldwide environmental problem, but relatively little is known about effects of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in planktonic crustaceans (including Daphnia magna). Aims of the present study were to investigate acute 48 h toxicity and sub-chronic (4-6 days) and chronic (21 days) effects of selected EDCs in D. magna. We have investigated both traditional endpoints as well as other parameters such as sex determination, maturation, molting or embryogenesis in order to evaluate the sensitivity and possible use of these endpoints in ecological risk assessment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We have studied effects of four model EDCs (vinclozolin, flutamide, ketoconazole and dicofol) on D. magna using (i) an acute 48 h immobilization assay, (ii) a sub-chronic, 4-6 day assay evaluating development and the sex ratio of neonates, and (iii) a chronic, 21 day assay studying number of neonates, sex of neonates, molting frequency, day of maturation and the growth of maternal organisms. RESULTS: Acute EC50 values in the 48 h immobilization test were as follows (mg/L): dicofol 0.2, ketoconazole 1.5, flutamide 2.7, vinclozolin >3. Short-term, 4-6 day assays with sublethal concentrations showed that the sex ratio in Daphnia was modulated by vinclozolin (decreased number of neonate males at 1 mg/L) and dicofol (increase in males at 0.1 mg/L). Flutamide (up to 1 mg/L) had no effect on the sex of neonates, but inhibited embryonic development at certain stages during chronic assay, resulting in abortions. Ketoconazole had no significant effects on the studied processes up to 1 mg/L. DISCUSSION: Sex ratio modulations by some chemicals (vinclozolin and dicofol) corresponded to the known action of these compounds in vertebrates (i.e. anti-androgenicity and anti-oestrogenicity, respectively). Our study revealed that some chemicals known to affect steroid-regulated processes in vertebrates can also affect sublethal endpoints (e.g. embryonic sex determination and/or reproduction) in invertebrates such as D. magna. CONCLUSIONS: A series of model vertebrate endocrine disrupters affected various sub-chronic and chronic parameters in D. magna including several endpoints that have not been previously studied in detail (such as sex determination in neonates, embryogenesis, molting and maturation). Evaluations of traditional reproduction parameters (obtained from the 21 day chronic assay). as well as the results from a rapid, 4-6 day, sub-chronic assay provide complementary information on non-lethal effects of suspected organic endocrine disrupters. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: It seems that there are analogies between vertebrates and invertebrates in toxicity mechanisms and in vivo effects of endocrine disruptors. However, general physiological status of organisms may also indirectly affect endpoints that are traditionally considered 'hormone regulated' (especially at higher effective concentrations as observed in this study) and these factors should be carefully considered. Further research of D. magna physiology and comparative studies with various EDCs will help to understand mechanisms of action as well as ecological risks of EDCs in the environment.     

Influence of weather and air pollution on the occurrence of idiopathic pulmonary embolism in the region of Sousse (Tunisia)

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the most serious manifestation of thromboembolic conditions. Its incidence varies considerably between countries,...     

I-C-SEA Change: A participatory tool for rapid assessment of vulnerability of tropical coastal communities to climate change impacts

We present a synoptic, participatory vulnerability assessment tool to help identify the likely impacts of climate change and human activity in coastal areas and begin discussions among stakeholders on the coping and adaptation measures necessary to minimize these impacts. Vulnerability assessment tools are most needed in the tropical Indo-Pacific, where burgeoning populations and inequitable economic growth place even greater burdens on natural resources and support ecosystems. The Integrated Coastal Sensitivity, Exposure, and Adaptive Capacity for Climate Change (I-C-SEA Change) tool is built around a series of scoring rubrics to guide non-specialists in assigning scores to the sensitivity and adaptive capacity components of vulnerability, particularly for coral reef, seagrass, and mangrove habitats, along with fisheries and coastal integrity. These scores are then weighed against threat or exposure to climate-related impacts such as marine flooding and erosion. The tool provides opportunities for learning by engaging more stakeholders in participatory planning and group decision-making. It also allows for information to be collated and processed during a “town-hall” meeting, facilitating further discussion, data validation, and even interactive scenario building.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13280-015-0652-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Rates of particulate pollution deposition onto leaf surfaces: Temporal and inter-species magnetic analyses

Evaluation of health impacts arising from inhalation of pollutant particles <10 μm (PM₁₀) is an active research area. However, lack of exposure data at high spatial resolution impedes identification of causal associations between exposure and illness. Biomagnetic monitoring of PM₁₀ deposited on tree leaves may provide a means of obtaining exposure data at high spatial resolution. To calculate ambient PM₁₀ concentrations from leaf magnetic values, the relationship between the magnetic signal and total PM₁₀ mass must be quantified, and the exposure time (via magnetic deposition velocity (MV_d) calculations) known. Birches display higher MV_d (∼5 cm⁻¹) than lime trees (∼2 cm⁻¹). Leaf saturation remanence values reached ‘equilibrium’ with ambient PM₁₀ concentrations after ∼6 ‘dry’ days (<3 mm/day rainfall). Other co-located species displayed within-species consistency in MV_d; robust inter-calibration can thus be achieved, enabling magnetic PM₁₀ biomonitoring at unprecedented spatial resolution.     

Potential influence of confounding factors (size,salinity) on biomarkers in the sentinel species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scrobicularia plana</Emphasis> used in programmes monitoring estuarine quality

Introduction  

To use biomarkers in monitoring programmes, potential confounding factors must be considered. In the clam Scrobicularia plana, the influence of size and salinity on biomarkers at different levels of biological organisation has been examined.     

Behavioural and biochemical responses of two marine invertebrates Scrobicularia plana and Hediste diversicolor to copper oxide nanoparticles

Engineered nano-sized Cu oxide particles are extensively used in diverse applications. Because aquatic environments are the ultimate “sink” for all contaminants, it is expected that nanoparticles (NP) will follow the same fate. In this study, two marine invertebrates Scrobicularia plana and Hediste diversicolor were chosen as ecotoxicological models. The aim was to evaluate behavioural (burrowing kinetics, feeding rate) and biochemical (biomarkers) responses of S. plana and H. diversicolor exposed in the laboratory to Cu (10 μg L⁻¹) added in natural seawater either in the form of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) of CuO or as dissolved Cu in 2% HNO₃. Exposure was characterized by considering (i) the physico-chemical fate of NP (ii) the fraction of labile Cu in experimental media and (iii) Cu bioaccumulation. Results showed high aggregation of CuO NPs in seawater and no additional bioavailable Cu concentrations. Behavioural impairments were observed in S. plana exposed to CuO NPs or soluble Cu whereas in H. diversicolor, only the exposure to soluble Cu led to a burrowing decrease. No obvious neurotoxicity effects were revealed since in both species, no changes in cholinesterasic activity occurred in response to both forms of Cu exposure. Biomarkers of oxidative-stress catalase and glutathione-S-transferase were enhanced in both species whereas superoxide dismutase was increased only in S. plana exposed to CuO NPs. Metallothionein-like protein was increased in bivalves exposed to both forms of Cu. Since, no detectable release of soluble Cu from CuO NPs occurred during the time of experiment, ecotoxicity effects seem to be related to CuO NPs themselves.     

Riparian plant material inputs to the Murray River, Australia: composition, reactivity, and role of nutrients

By changing riparian plants from Eucalypts to pasture and exotic deciduous trees, modern development has altered the type of carbon assimilated by Australian rivers. To investigate influences of plant litter substrates on biochemical oxygen demand, plant materials entering the Murray River were analyzed for their composition and mineralization potential. Plant materials were distinguished compositionally by two principal components, structural carbon and macronutrients, as: (i) Eucalyptus leaves, (ii) Eucalyptus bark and Casuarina cunninghamiana seed cone, (iii) grasses, (iv) macrophytes, (v) aquatic herbs, (vi) non-eucalypt leaf (Salix, Casuarina, Acacia). Ratios of C/P (1879-14524) and C/N (65-267) were relatively high in Eucalyptus bark, while mean N/P (7-60) ratios were similar among plant materials. Terrestrial weathering increased C/P and C/N ratios, while N/P ratios remained similar, due to greater loss of N and P relative to C. Aerobic decay experiments showed that nutrient supplementation accelerated decay of all organic substrates, except for grasses that decayed efficiently without supplementation. Aquatic herbs also had substantial carbon availability, macrophytes and non-eucalypt leaves had intermediate carbon availability, while eucalypt leaf and bark had intermediate to low carbon availabilities. Because biochemical oxygen demand varies with organic substrates sampled from the Murray River, and also with soluble nutrient availability, it is plausible that that modern changes to riverine plant communities and land use have influenced the biogeochemistry of this river toward faster, and more complete, processing of allochthonous carbon.     

Social vulnerability to climate change: a review of concepts and evidence

Regional Environmental Change - This article provides a review of recent scientific literature on social vulnerability to climate change, aiming to determine which social and demographic groups,...