Contrasting Patterns of Urban Expansion in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia Between 1992 and 2009

The global urban population is increasing rapidly, but patterns of urban expansion differ greatly among countries. Urban transition theory predicts that the shift from low to high urbanization depends on a country’s history and level of economic development. This study describes urban expansion in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia between 1992 and 2009. Urban dynamics were analyzed by combining nighttime lights and census data from 4032 municipalities. High-lit areas (>52–63 pixel values) were correlated with urban populations across municipalities and years (R ² > 0.90). Analyses showed that between 1992 and 2009 Bolivia and Ecuador had rapid population growth and rapidly increasing high-lit areas, while Peru and Colombia had lower rates of population growth and urbanization (i.e., expansion of high-lit areas). We demonstrate how nighttime lights can be a useful tool, providing a homogeneous platform for multi-scale analyses of urban growth.     

Beyond selectivity: Are behavioral avoidance and hormesis likely causes of pyrethroid-induced outbreaks of the southern red mite Oligonychus ilicis?

Secondary pest outbreak is a counterintuitive ecological backlash of pesticide use in agriculture that takes place with the increase in abundance of a non-targeted pest species after pesticide application against a targeted pest species. Although the phenomenon was well recognized, its alternative causes are seldom considered. Outbreaks of the southern red mite Oligonychus ilicis are frequently reported in Brazilian coffee farms after the application of pyrethroid insecticides against the coffee leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella. Selectivity favoring the red mite against its main predatory mites is generally assumed as the outbreak cause, but this theory has never been tested. Here, we assessed the toxicity (and thus the selectivity) of deltamethrin against both mite species: the southern red mite and its phytoseid predator Amblyseius herbicolus. Additionally, behavioral avoidance and deltamethrin-induced hormesis were also tested as potential causes of red mite outbreak using free-choice behavioral walking bioassays with the predatory mite and life-table experiments with both mite species, respectively. Lethal toxicity bioassays indicated that the predatory mite was slightly more susceptible than its prey (1.5×), but in more robust demographic bioassays, the predator was three times more tolerant to deltamethrin than its prey, indicating that predator susceptibility to deltamethrin is not a cause of the reported outbreaks. The predator did not exhibit behavioral avoidance to deltamethrin; however insecticide-induced hormesis in the red mite led to its high population increase under low doses, which was not observed for the predatory mite. Therefore, deltamethrin-induced hormesis is a likely cause of the reported red mite outbreaks.     

Determination of anti-anxiety and anti-epileptic drugs in hospital effluent and a preliminary risk assessment

In this study, an analytical methodology was developed for the determination of psycho-active drugs in the treated effluent of the University Hospital at the Federal University of Santa Maria, RS – Brazil. Samples were collected from point A (Emergency) and point B (General effluent). The adopted methodology included a pre-concentration procedure involving the use of solid phase extraction and determination by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The limit of detection for bromazepam and lorazepam was 4.9 ± 1.0 ng L⁻¹ and, for carbamazepine, clonazepam and diazepam was 6.1 ± 1.5 ng L⁻¹. The limit of quantification was 30.0 ± 1.1 ng L⁻¹, for bromazepam, clonazepam and lorazepam; for carbamazepine was 50.0 ± 1.8 ng L⁻¹ and was 40.0 ± 1.0 ng L⁻¹ for diazepam. The mean concentrations in the Emergency and General effluent treated currents were as follows: for bromazepam, 195 ± 6 ng L⁻¹ and 137 ± 7 ng L⁻¹; for carbamazepine, 590 ± 6 ng L⁻¹ and 461 ± 10 ng L⁻¹; for diazepam, 645 ± 1 ng L⁻¹ and 571 ± 10 ng L⁻¹; for lorazepam, 96 ± 7 ng L⁻¹ and 42 ± 4 ng L⁻¹; and for clonazepam, 134 ± 10 ng L⁻¹ and 57 ± 10 ng L⁻¹. A preliminary risk assessment was conducted: carbamazepine and diazepam require considerable attention owing to their environmental toxicity. The occurrence of these psychoactive-drugs and the environmental risks that they pose demonstrated the need for a more efficient treatment system. As far we are aware, there have been no comparable studies to this on the hazards of hospital effluents in Brazil, and very few that have carried out a risk assessment of psycho-active drugs in hospital effluent in general.     

Amelioration of physical strength in waste foundry green sands for reuse as a soil amendment

To avoid increasing costs of landfill disposal, it has become increasingly important for U.S. foundries to identify beneficial reuses for the 8 to 12 million tons of waste foundry sand (WFS) generated annually. A major drawback to the reuse of some WFSs as a soil amendment is their high soil strength, under dry conditions, where root growth may be limited. Fifteen WFSs were analyzed for strength to rupture using lab-formed clods, exchangeable cations (Na, Mg, Ca), metal oxide concentration (Fe, Mn, Al, Si), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and % clay. Several WFS samples from gray iron foundries demonstrated high strength to rupture values (> 1.5 MPa), and could potentially restrict root growth in amended soils. The percentage of Na-bentonite exhibited a positive correlation (R(2) = 0.84) with strength to rupture values. When WFSs containing more Na-bentonite were saturated with 1 mol L(-1) Ca ions, strength values decreased by approximately 70%. Waste foundry sands containing less Na-bentonite were saturated with 1 mol L(-1) Na ions and exhibited a threefold increase in strength. Additions of gypsum (up to 9.6 g kg(-1) sand) to high strength waste foundry sands also caused decreases in strength. These results indicate that high strength WFSs have properties similar to hardsetting soils which are caused by high Na(+) clay content and can be ameliorated by the addition of Ca(2+).     

Co-digestion of animal slurry can increase short-term nitrogen recovery by crops

Co-digestion changes slurry characteristics and is supposed to increase short-term nitrogen (N) uptake by crops after application. A higher N uptake from slurry reduces the need for additional mineral N fertilizer. If farmers apply co-digested slurry (CS), a higher N recovery has to be taken into account to prevent losses to the environment. Since data on the effects of co-digestion on N recovery by crops are scarce, a pot experiment was performed. The apparent N recovery (ANR) of five different co-digested pig slurries was compared with their raw source slurries (RS) during 105 d after a single fertilization of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), grown under controlled conditions. Slurry was mixed with sandy soil and grass was cut every 35 d. The results show that co-digestion increased (p < 0.05) the ANR at first cut on average from 39 to 50%, at second cut from 7 to 9% (p < 0.05), and had no effect on ANR at third cut (3%). The ANR increase at first cut was likely due to an increase of the NH(4)-N/total N ratio along with a decrease of the organic C/total N ratio of slurry during co-digestion. Field application may under certain circumstances decrease N fertilizer value of CS, due to a higher NH(3) emission compared to RS. A potential ANR increase may then be reduced, absent, or even become a decrease. Under comparable NH(3) emissions, however, CS can in the short term be more valuable as an N fertilizer than RS, and fertilizer savings can likely be realized.     

Antibacterial behavior of silver-modified clinoptilolite-heulandite rich tuff on coliform microorganisms from wastewater in a column system

The water disinfecting behavior of silver-modified clinoptilolite–heulandite rich tuff (ZSAg) as an antibacterial agent against coliform microorganisms from water in a continuous mode was investigated. Silver recovery from the disinfected effluents by the sodium-modified clinoptilolite–heulandite rich tuff (ZSNa) was also considered. Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739) and total coliform microorganisms, as indicators of microbiological contamination of water, were chosen to achieve the disinfection of synthetic wastewater or municipal wastewater. Ammonium (NH₄⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions were added to the synthetic wastewater as an interfering chemical species on the disinfection processes. The antibacterial activity of the ZSAg as a bactericide was measured by the coliform concentration as evaluated by the APHA method. The amount of silver in the disinfected effluents was determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The inactivation of the ZSAg was calculated from the breakthrough curves based on the model reported by Gupta et al. It was found that when the silver concentration in the effluent is less than 0.6 μg/mL, the bacterial survival percentage increased and the volume of disinfected water diminished. The total silver amounts found in the effluent at the end of the disinfection processes varied depending on the water treated (synthetic or municipal wastewater). The presence of NH₄⁺ ions in synthetic wastewater influent notably improved the disinfected water volume (zero NVC/100 mL), in comparison to the disinfection of the same influent without NH₄⁺ ions. A contrary water disinfection behavior was observed in the presence of Cl⁻ ions. The silver recovery does not depend on the mass of the sodium zeolitic bed according with the wastewater to be treated (synthetic or municipal wastewater) and the presence of NH₄⁺ or Cl⁻ ions in the influent also influenced the silver recovery from wastewater. The ZSNa did not have antibacterial activity. Therefore the amount of bactericide agent (silver-modified natural zeolite), coliform microorganisms from water (E. coli or consort of coliform microorganisms) as well as the water quality (synthetic wastewater or municipal wastewater) influenced both the disinfection process and the silver recovery in a column system.     

What is needed to improve tropical conservation? Appropriate education, training, and encouragement

Currently, there is a need for a better multidisciplinary education system for tropical conservation, as well as a need for more people from developing countries to receive such improved education and training. If this combination is achieved, universities in both developed and developing nations will likely produce graduates who are better prepared for jobs involving non-academic tropical conservation initiatives and, simultaneously produce graduates who may be better accepted as conservationists in tropical destinations.     

Relationships between street characteristics and perceived attractiveness for walking reported by elderly people

Walking is important for the health of elderly people. Previous studies have found a relationship between neighbourhood characteristics, physical activity and related health aspects. The multivariate linear regression model presented here describes the relationships between the perceived attractiveness of streets for walking along and (physical) street characteristics. Two hundred and eighty-eight independently living elderly people (between 55 and 80 years old) participated in the study. Street characteristics were assessed along homogeneous street subsections defined as ‘links’. Positively related to perceived attractiveness of links were the following street characteristics: slopes and/or stairs, zebra crossings, trees along the route, front gardens, bus and tram stops, shops, business buildings, catering establishments, passing through parks or the city centre, and traffic volume. Litter on the street, high-rise buildings, and neighbourhood density of dwellings were negatively related to perceived link attractiveness. Overall, the results suggest that three main aspects affect perceived attractiveness of streets for walking, namely tidiness of the street, its scenic value and the presence of activity or other people along the street. The results are discussed within the context of these three aspects.