Incorporating Uncertainty into Management Models for Marine Mammals

Abstract: Good management models and good models for understanding biology differ in basic philosophy. Management models must facilitate management decisions despite large amounts of uncertainty about the managed populations. Such models must be based on parameters that can be estimated readily, must explicitly account for uncertainty, and should be simple to understand and implement. In contrast, biological models are designed to elucidate the workings of biology and should not be constrained by management concerns. We illustrate the need to incorporate uncertainty in management models by reviewing the inadequacy of using standard biological models to manage marine mammals in the United States. Past management was based on a simple model that, although it may have represented population dynamics adequately, failed as a management tool because the parameter that triggered management action was extremely difficult to estimate for the majority of populations. Uncertainty in parameter estimation resulted in few conservation actions. We describe a recently adopted management scheme that incorporates uncertainty and its resulting implementation. The approach used in this simple management scheme, which was tested by using simulation models, incorporates uncertainty and mandates monitoring abundance and human-caused mortality. Although the entire scheme may be suitable for application to some terrestrial and marine problems, two features are broadly applicable: the incorporation of uncertainty through simulations of management and the use of quantitative management criteria to translate verbal objectives into levels of acceptable risk.     

Small queens in the ant Ectatomma tuberculatum: a new case of social parasitism

Social parasites exploit the worker force of colonies of other social insects to rear their own young. Social parasitism occurs in several Hymenoptera and is particularly common in several tribes of the ant subfamilies Myrmicinae and Formicinae. Here, we document the occurrence of miniaturized queens (microgynes) in colonies of Ectatomma tuberculatum, an ant belonging to the subfamily Ectatomminae. Behavioral observations and genetic analyses show that microgynes concentrate their reproductive efforts almost exclusively on the production of sexual offspring (microgynes and males), whereas the regular, large queens (macrogynes) produce workers in addition to sexuals. According to mitochondrial and nuclear markers, gene flow between microgynes and macrogynes is extremely limited. Whereas the co-occurrence of microgynes and macrogynes in the related species Ectatomma ruidum constitutes an intraspecific polymorphism associated with alternative dispersal tactics, microgynes found in colonies of E. tuberculatum appear to be a distinct species and to represent the first case of social parasitism in the poneromorph subfamilies of ants.     

Whitefly wax as a cue for phoresy in the broad mite, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polyphagotarsonemus latus</Emphasis>(Acari: Tarsonemidae)

Summary. Broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Acari: Tarsonemidae) exhibits a specific phoretic relationship with whiteflies. Under field conditions most broad mites, caught in sticky traps, are attached to whiteflies. Under laboratory conditions, attachment occurs equally well in the dark and light. Mites do not differentiate between the sexes of their phoretic host Bemisia tabaci. However, mite attachment to B. tabaci is greatly diminished by washing the host with various organic solvents, chloroform in particular. The effect of whitefly waxy particles on broad mite behavior was studied using wax from the whitefly Aleyrodes singularis and from the mealybug Planococcus citri. Broad mites were not only attracted specifically to the A. singularis waxy particles-treated leaf areas but were also attached to leaf trichomes in this area. The results of this study suggests the importance of olfactory cues from the whitefly waxy particles in the recognition process of the phoretic host and/or the induction of the attachment behavior to whitefly legs or leaf trichomes.     

Influence of an artificial reef on the surrounding infaunal community

Artificial reefs have been constructed throughout the world, but their effects on adjacent soft-bottom communities are largely unknown. In December 1986, we investigated the influence of Pendleton Artificial Reef (PAR) in Southern California on the abundance of infauna in the surrounding sand bottom. PAR was constructed in 1980 of quarry rock placed in eight piles, or modules. The artificial reef altered the grain-size distribution of sediments around the reef; sediments close to the modules were coarser than those 10 or 20 m away from the modules. Densities of one of the two most common species, the polychaetePrionospio pygmaeus, were lower near the reef, perhaps due to foraging by reef-associated predators or because the habitat near the reef was less suitable. We found no evidence that foraging by reef-associated fishes caused a widespread reduction in infaunal densities near the reef, and in fact the other most common taxon,Spiophanes spp., had higher densities near the reef. The most conspicuous effect of the artificial reef concerned the tube-dwelling wormDiopatra ornata, which only occurred in close association with the modules. In addition, total infaunal density and the densities of decapods, echinoderms and sipunculids were higher withinD. ornata beds than outside the beds. These results indicate that the densities of some species were enhanced, and others depressed, around the reef, but that the overall effect of the artificial reef on the surrounding infauna was limited to a small area near the modules.     

Comparison of health patterns in two geochemically contrasted areas of northern Finland

In order to prepare the ground for a discussion of possible causal relationships between health patterns and the geochemistry of an area, health patterns in the form of age-adjusted cancer incidence values and rates of mortality due to (1) cancer of the stomach, colon or rectum, (2) lung cancer and (3) ischaemic heart diseases are compared between the populations of two geochemically contrasted communes of northern Finland (Kemijärvi and Kuusamo). Statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) are encountered in the mortality rates due to ischaemic heart diseases and marked differences in the incidence values of lung cancer, the former being higher in Kuusamo and the latter in Kemijärvi. The higher incidence of lung cancer observed in Kemijärvi is in accordance with previous results reported from the USA, where higher incidences have been observed in areas of granitic bedrock. Regarding the higher mortality rate due to ischaemic heart diseases In Kuusamo, which is geochemically characterised by higher potassium (p < 0.002) and calcium (p < 0.004) and lower Zn, V, Ti, and Fe (p > 0.002) in the soil (actually, in the fine till fraction), no easily demonstrable cause- and-effect relationship can be established.     

Mitochondrial gene variation in Mercenaria clam sibling species reveals a relict secondary contact zone in the western Gulf of Mexico

We investigated phylogeographic relationships among American Mercenaria taxa by assessing variation in a 444 nucleotide fragment of the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal gene in clams sampled from four representative sites in January to November 1994. Three of these sites were in the Gulf of Mexico, one was on the Atlantic coast in South Carolina. Direct sequencing of this amplified gene fragment in 85 individuals revealed 21 haplotypes. Phylogenetic analyses consistently resolved this variation into three well supported clades, and within-clade genetic divergence levels were markedly lower than among-clade values. One of the clades, A, was taxon-specific, in that it solely and exclusively contained specimens of M. mercenaria (Linnaeus, 1758) sampled in South Carolina. The other two clades, B and C, were the most divergent and both encompassed specimens of M. campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791) and of M. campechiensis texana (Dall, 1902), sampled from the three Gulf of Mexico sites. Clade B was found at high frequencies at all three Gulf sites, whereas Clade C occurred at low frequencies at two western Gulf sites. We interpret this pattern as resulting from the secondary contact and introgression of two allopatrically differentiated Mercenaria taxa in the western Gulf of Mexico. Clade C haplotypes may represent relict mitochondrial lineages from original Gulf Mercenaria spp. populations that predate massive mitochondrial introgression by M. campechiensis. We further propose that the M. campechiensis texana nuclear genome is a mosaic, heavily weighted toward M. campechiensis, but containing some relict alleles inherited from the precontact population, especially those governing shell characteristics, which may be adaptive in cohesive sediments of bays and estuaries in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico.     

Determination of selected fate and aquatic toxicity characteristics of acrylic acid and a series of acrylic esters

Acrylic acid, methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, and butyl acrylate are commercially important and widely used materials. This paper reports the results of a series of fate and aquatic toxicity studies. The mobility in soil of acrylic acid and its esters ranged from 'medium' to 'very high'. Calculated bioconcentration factors ranged from 1 to 37, suggesting a low bioconcentration potential. Acrylic acid and methyl acrylate showed limited biodegradability in the five day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) test, while ethyl acrylate and butyl acrylate were degraded easily (77% and 56%, respectively). Using the OECD method 301D 28-d closed bottle test, degradability for acrylic acid was 81% at 28 days, while the acrylic esters ranged from 57% to 60%. Acrylic acid degraded rapidly to carbon dioxide in soil (t1/2 < 1 day). Toxicity tests were conducted using freshwater and marine fish, invertebrates, and algae. Acrylic acid effect concentrations for fish and invertebrates ranged from 27 to 236 mg/l. Effect concentrations (LC50 or EC50) for fish and invertebrates using methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, and butyl acrylate ranged from 1.1 to 8.2 mg/l. The chronic MATC for acrylic acid with Daphnia magna was 27 mg/l based on length and young produced per adult reproduction day and for ethyl acrylate was 0.29 mg/l based on both the reproductive and growth endpoints. Overall these studies show that acrylic acid and the acrylic esters studied can rapidly biodegrade, have a low potential for persistence or bioaccumulation in the environment, and have low to moderate toxicity.     

The solid-phase controls on the mobility of heavy metals at the Copper Cliff tailings area, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

The Copper Cliff Tailings Disposal Area, located near Sudbury, Ontario, covers an area of approximately 2200 ha and constitutes more than 10% of the total area of all mine tailings in Canada. The area has been utilized since 1936, receiving sulphide-containing tailings from the Inco Sudbury operations. Field measurements of pore-gas oxygen and carbon dioxide in the vadose zone indicate that sulphide oxidation has progressed to depths of 1.6 m to 1.7 m within the tailings. The oxidation of sulphide minerals within the vadose zone, and the accompanying dissolution of carbonate and aluminosilicate minerals within these tailings releases SO₄, Fe(II) and other metals to the pore water. In the vadose and saturated zones, concentrations of Fe and Ni exceed 10100 mg/l and 2210 mg/l, respectively. These high concentrations of dissolved metals are attenuated by a series of precipitation, coprecipitation and adsorption reactions. The precipitation of secondary sulphate and hydroxide phases also create hardpan layers at or near the oxidation front. Geochemical modelling of the pore-water chemistry suggests that pH-buffering reactions are occurring within the shallow oxidized zones, and that secondary-phase precipitation is occurring at or near the underlying hardpan and transition zones. Mineralogical study of the tailings confirmed the presence of jarosite, gypsum and goethite within the shallow tailings, suggesting that these phases are controlling the dissolved concentrations of Fe, SO₄ and Ca. Extraction experiments conducted on the tailings solids indicate that the constituents contained in the water-soluble fraction of the shallow, weathered tailings are derived from the original pore water and the dissolution of highly soluble phases such as gypsum. The acid-leachable fraction of the weathered tailings accounts for up to 25% of the heavy metals, and the reducible fraction may contain up to 100% of the heavy metals within the shallow, weathered tailings. Based on the pore water profiles and the geochemistry of the tailings solids, a relative mobility scale of Fe=Mn=Ni=Co>Cd Zn>Cr=Pb>Cu can be determined.     

Chemical methods and phytoremediation of soil contaminated with heavy metals

The effects of chemical amendments (calcium carbonate (CC), steel sludge (SS) and furnace slag (FS)) on the growth and uptake of cadmium (Cd) by wetland rice, Chinese cabbage and wheat grown in a red soil contaminated with Cd were investigated using a pot experiment. The phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil with vetiver grass was also studied in a field plot experiment. Results showed that treatments with CC, SS and FS decreased Cd uptake by wetland rice, Chinese cabbage and wheat by 23-95% compared with the unamended control. Among the three amendments, FS was the most efficient at suppressing Cd uptake by the plants, probably due to its higher content of available silicon (Si). The concentrations of zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and Cd in the shoots of vetiver grass were 42-67%, 500-1200% and 120-260% higher in contaminated plots than in control, respectively. Cadmium accumulation by vetiver shoots was 218 g Cd/ha at a soil Cd concentration of 0.33 mg Cd/kg. It is suggested that heavy metal-contaminated soil could be remediated with a combination of chemical treatments and plants.