Evaluation of forest nutrition based on large-scale foliar surveys: are nutrition profiles the way of the future?

This paper introduces the use of nutrition profiles as a first step in the development of a concept that is suitable for evaluating forest nutrition on the basis of large-scale foliar surveys. Nutrition profiles of a tree or stand were defined as the nutrient status, which accounts for all element concentrations, contents and interactions between two or more elements. Therefore a nutrition profile overcomes the shortcomings associated with the commonly used concepts for evaluating forest nutrition. Nutrition profiles can be calculated by means of a neural network, i.e. a self-organizing map, and an agglomerative clustering algorithm with pruning. As an example, nutrition profiles were calculated to describe the temporal variation in the mineral composition of Scots pine and Norway spruce needles in Finland between 1987 and 2000. The temporal trends in the frequency distribution of the nutrition profiles of Scots pine indicated that, between 1987 and 2000, the N, S, P, K, Ca, Mg and Al decreased, whereas the needle mass (NM) increased or remained unchanged. As there were no temporal trends in the frequency distribution of the nutrition profiles of Norway spruce, the mineral composition of the needles of Norway spruce needles subsequently did not change. Interpretation of the (lack of) temporal trends was outside the scope of this example. However, nutrition profiles prove to be a new and better concept for the evaluation of the mineral composition of large-scale surveys only when a biological interpretation of the nutrition profiles can be provided.     

Distribution of airborne particles from multi-emission source

The purpose of this work was to study the distribution of airborne particles in the surroundings of an iron and steel factory in southern Finland. Several sources of particulate emissions are lying side by side, causing heavy dust loading to the environment. This complicated multi-pollutant situation was studied mainly by SEM/EDX methodology.Particles accumulated on Scots pine bark were identified andquantitatively measured according to their element content,size and shape. As a result, distribution maps of particulateelements were drawn and the amount of different particle typesalong the study lines was plotted. Particulate emissions fromthe industrial or energy production processes were not themain dust source. Most emissions were produced from theclinker crusher. Numerous stockpiles of the industrial wastesand raw materials also gave rise to particulate emissions as aresult of wind erosion. It was concluded that SEM/EDXmethodology is a useful tool for studying the distribution ofparticulate pollutants.     

COMBUSTIVE APPROACH FOR MEASURING TOTAL VOLATILE PHOSPHORUS CONTENT IN LANDFILL GAS

A technique was developed to measure the total gaseous phosphorus content in biogas. The amount of air needed for a neutral to oxidising flame was mixed with the biogas. The gas mixture was burnt in a closed quartz burner and the combustion gasses were bubbled through a nitric acid solution. The phosphate content in the bubbling liquid was determined with sector field ICP-MS. The technique was validated in the lab with phosphine. Afterwards the set-up was installed on a landfill. The total gaseous phosphorus content in the landfill gas, measured with the combustive technique, ranged from 1.65 to 4.44 g P/m³. At the same time the phosphine concentration in the landfill gas was determined gas chromatographically (GC). The phosphine (PH₃) content measured with GC ranged from 7.6 to 16.7 g PH₃-P/m³. Since the phosphine-P content (GC) was consistently higher than the total gaseous phosphorus content (burner/ICP-MS), the hypothesised presence of highly toxic gaseous phosphorus compounds other than phosphine could not be demonstrated.     

Monitoring of Butter and Ghee (Clarified Butter Fat) for Pesticidal Contamination from Cotton Belt of Haryana, India

Butter (45) and ghee (55) samples were collected from rural and urban areas of cotton growing belt of Haryana and analysed for detecting the residues of organochlorine, synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides. The estimation was carried out by using multi residue analytical technique employing GC-ECD and GC-NPD systems equipped with capillary columns. Butter samples were comparatively more contaminated (97%) than ghee (94%), showing more contamination with organochlorine insecticides from urban samples. About 11% samples of butter showed endosulfan residues above MRL value and 2% samples had residues of synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphates each above their respective MRL values. In ghee, residues of HCH & DDT both and of endosulfan exceeded the MRL values in 5 and 20% samples, respectively. Among organophosphates, only chlorpyriphos was detected with 9% samples showing its residue above MRL value. Irrespective of contamination levels, residues above the MRL values were more in ghee. More extensive study covering other agricultural regions/zones of Haryana has been suggested to know the overall scenario of contamination of milk products.     

Risk-Based Prioritization of Air Pollution Monitoring Using Fuzzy Synthetic Evaluation Technique

Air pollution monitoring programs aim to monitor pollutants and their probable adverse effects at various locations over concerned area. Either sensitivity of receptors/location or concentration of pollutants is used for prioritizing the monitoring locations. The exposure-based approach prioritizes the monitoring locations based on population density and/or location sensitivity. The hazard-based approach prioritizes the monitoring locations using intensity (concentrations) of air pollutants at various locations. Exposure and hazard-based approaches focus on frequency (probability of occurrence) and potential hazard (consequence of damage), respectively. Adverse effects should be measured only if receptors are exposed to these air pollutants. The existing methods of monitoring location prioritization do not consider both factors (hazard and exposure) at a time. Towards this, a risk-based approach has been proposed which combines both factors: exposure frequency (probability of occurrence/exposure) and potential hazard (consequence).This paper discusses the use of fuzzy synthetic evaluation technique in risk computation and prioritization of air pollution monitoring locations. To demonstrate the application, common air pollutants like CO, NO_x, PM₁₀ and SO_x are used as hazard parameters. Fuzzy evaluation matrices for hazard parameters are established for different locations in the area. Similarly, fuzzy evaluation matrices for exposure parameters: population density, location and population sensitivity are also developed. Subsequently, fuzzy risk is determined at these locations using fuzzy compositional rules. Finally, these locations are prioritized based on defuzzified risk (crisp value of risk, defined as risk score) and the five most important monitoring locations are identified (out of 35 potential locations). These locations differ from the existing monitoring locations.     

Sulphate, Nitrogen and Base Cation Budgets at 21 Forested Catchments in Canada, the United States and Europe

To assess the concern over declining base cation levels in forest soils caused by acid deposition, input-output budgets (1990s average) for sulphate (SO₄), inorganic nitrogen (NO₃-N; NH₄-N), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) were synthesised for 21 forested catchments from 17 regions in Canada, the United States and Europe. Trend analysis was conducted on monthly ion concentrations in deposition and runoff when more than 9 years of data were available (14 regions, 17 sites). Annual average SO₄ deposition during the 1990s ranged between 7.3 and 28.4 kg ha⁻¹ per year, and inorganic nitrogen (N) deposition was between 2.8 and 13.8 kg ha⁻¹ per year, of which 41–67% was nitrate (NO₃-N). Over the period of record, SO₄ concentration in deposition decreased in 13/14 (13 out of 14 total) regions and SO₄ in runoff decreased at 14/17 catchments. In contrast, NO₃-N concentrations in deposition decreased in only 1/14 regions, while NH₄-N concentration patterns varied; increasing at 3/14 regions and decreasing at 2/14 regions. Nitrate concentrations in runoff decreased at 4/17 catchments and increased at only 1 site, whereas runoff levels of NH₄-N increased at 5/17 catchments. Decreasing trends in deposition were also recorded for Ca, Mg, and K at many of the catchments and on an equivalent basis, accounted for up to 131% (median 22%) of the decrease in acid anion deposition. Base cation concentrations in streams generally declined over time, with significant decreases in Ca, Mg and K occurring at 8, 9 and 7 of 17 sites respectively, which accounted for up to 133% (median 48%) of the decrease in acid anion concentration. Sulphate export exceeded input at 18/21 catchments, likely due to dry deposition and/or internal sources. The majority of N in deposition (31–100%; median 94%) was retained in the catchments, although there was a tendency for greater NO₃-N leaching at sites receiving higher (<7 kg ha^-1 per year) bulk inorganic N deposition. Mass balance calculations show that export of Ca and Mg in runoff exceeds input at all 21 catchments, but K export only exceeds input at 16/21 sites. Estimates of base cation weathering were available for 18 sites. When included in the mass balance calculation, Ca, Mg and K exports exceeded inputs at 14, 10 and 2 sites respectively. Annual Ca and Mg losses represent appreciable proportions of the current exchangeable soil Ca and Mg pools, although losses at some of the sites likely occur from weathering reactions beneath the rooting zone and there is considerable uncertainty associated with mineral weathering estimates. Critical loads for sulphur (S) and N, using a critical base cation to aluminium ratio of 10 in soil solution, are currently exceeded at 7 of the 18 sites with base cation weathering estimates. Despite reductions in SO₄ and H⁺ deposition, mass balance estimates indicate that acid deposition continues to acidify soils in many regions with losses of Ca and Mg of primary concern. The U.S. Government's right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged. The Canadian Crown reserves the right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright.     

Evaluation of Water Quality in the Chillán River (Central Chile) Using Physicochemical Parameters and a Modified Water Quality Index

The Chillán River in Central Chile plays a fundamental role in local society, as a source of irrigation and drinking water, and as a sink for urban wastewater. In order to characterize the spatial and temporal variability of surface water quality in the watershed, a Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated from nine physicochemical parameters, periodically measured at 18 sampling sites (January–November 2000). The results indicated a good water quality in the upper and middle parts of the watershed. Downstream of the City of Chillán, water quality conditions were critical during the dry season, mainly due to the effects of the urban wastewater discharge. On the basis of the results from a Principal Component Analysis (PCA), modifications were introduced into the original WQI to reduce the costs associated with its implementation. WQI_DIR2 and WQI_DIR, which are both based on a laboratory analysis (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and three (pH, temperature and conductivity), respectively, four field measurements (pH, temperature, conductivity and Dissolved Oxygen), adequately reproduce the most important spatial and temporal variations observed with the original index. They are proposed as useful tools for monitoring global water quality trends in this and other, similar agricultural watersheds in the Chilean Central Valley. Possibilities and limitations for the application of the used methodology to watersheds in other parts of the world are discussed.     

Air Pollution and Heat Exposure Study in the Workplace in a Glass Manufacturing Unit in India

Air pollution in the workplace environment due to industrial operation have been found to cause serious occupational health hazard. Similarly, heat stress is still most neglected occupational hazard in the tropical and subtropical countries like India. The hot climate augments the heat exposure close to sources like furnaces. In this study an attempt is made to assess air pollution and heat exposure levels to workers in the workplace environment in glass manufacturing unit located in the State of Gujarat, India. Samples for workplace air quality were collected for SPM, SO₂, NO₂ and CO₂ at eight locations. Results of workplace air quality showed 8-hourly average concentrations of SPM: 165–9118 μg/m³, SO₂: 6–9 μg/m³ and NO₂: 5–42 μg/m³, which were below the threshold limit values of workplace environment. The level of CO₂ in workplace air of the plant was found to be in the range 827–2886 μg/m³, which was below TLV but much higher than the normal concentration for CO₂ in the air (585 mg/m³). Indoor heat exposure was studied near the furnace and at various locations in an industrial complex for glass manufacturing. The heat exposure parameters including the air temperature, the wet bulb temperature, and the globe parameters were measured. The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT), an indicator of heat, exceeded ACGIH TLVs limits most of the time at all the locations in workplace areas. The recommended duration of work and rest have also been estimated.     

Microbial population dynamics at effluent treatment plants

The requirements for treated wastewater are becoming increasingly more stringent, and therefore the improved efficiency of biological treatment processes is indispensable at industrial effluent treatment plants (ETPs). Microorganisms such as bacteria play an important role in the natural cycling of materials and particularly in the decomposition of organic wastes. The knowledge of the interactions among these microbial populations needs to be harnessed for optimum evaluation and functioning of effluent treatment plants. Modern molecular techniques have revolutionized the methods of assessing these microbial populations. The combination of the results of these microbial assessments along with the on-site parameters at ETPs would favor an efficient treatment. In this review, the various approaches and importance of correlating the microbial population dynamics and treatment of wastewater at industrial ETPs has been elaborated.