Reproductive success increases with degree of kinship in cooperative coalitions of female red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus)

Evaluation of evolutionary mechanisms proposed to promote cooperative behavior depends on the relative influence of the behavior on the reproductive success of individuals, the reproductive success of the group in which they interact behaviorally, and the degree of gene correlation among cooperators. The genetic relationship within cooperative coalitions of female red howler monkeys was examined for three populations with different densities and growth rates. Patterns of gene correlation change within coalitions is documented using data from the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes, and long-term census monitoring. Differences in fecundity and infant survivorship within and between groups of unrelated (rˉ=0) and related (rˉ≥ 0.25) females are compared. Females that emigrate from their natal groups form coalitions with other migrant females. These coalitions attempt to establish a territory and, once successful in producing offspring, exclude other females from feeding resources. Females in these coalitions had different mtDNA haplotypes and a genetically estimated mean r of 0, supporting demographic data on emigration patterns indicating that these females rarely have the opportunity to form coalitions with kin. Patterns of recruitment and rate of matriline development within social groups supported behavioral data indicating that females actively attempt to promote their own matriline as breeders over that of other females, and that some matrilines are more successful at this than others. Mean r among females was significantly higher in coalitions established as social groups for several generations (rˉ=0.44). In these groups, females all shared the same mtDNA haplotype, and mtDNA haplotype divergence was significantly higher between than within groups. Females in coalitions with kin had significantly higher reproductive success than females in unrelated coalitions in all populations. This difference was not a function of coalition size, number of males, socionomic sex ratio, or primiparity, although anecdotal evidence suggests that allomothering may compensate for inept new mothers in related coalitions more often than in unrelated ones. Differences in territory quality could not be ruled out as a potential causal factor in the saturated populations, but were unlikely in the low-density, growing population. There were substantial differences among long-established coalitions in overall reproductive output in all three populations, and this was significantly correlated with the number of breeding females. Increase in coalition size was a function of both group age and the behavioral tolerance among females. Regardless of the underlying reasons for the patterns observed, reproductive success clearly increases with degree of gene correlation among females within cooperative coalitions, and coalitions that recruit more daughters produce more offspring. The nature of the cooperative relationship among group females directly influences both of these outcomes. This is associated with substantial genetic differentiation among social groups within populations, creating conditions in which genetic tendencies towards cooperative behavior can become tightly associated with group reproductive success. Received: 15 September 1999 / Revised: 27 April 2000 / Accepted: 27 May 2000     

Adaptive properties of the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Wigg. s.l.) under conditions of air pollution by motor vehicle exhausts

Microcalorimetric, gasometric, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods have been used to evaluate heat production, gas exchange, and root membrane permeability in dandelion of different morphological forms from populations exposed to different levels of air pollution. The results show that these forms differ in the level of energy metabolism and that the form with a higher metabolic level (T. off. f. dahlstedtii) is more tolerant of air pollution with motor vehicle exhausts.     

Mesoscale, finescale and microscale distribution of micro- and nanoplankton in the Irish Sea, with emphasis on ciliates and their prey

We examined the degree of mesoscale (km), finescale (m), and microscale (cm) patchiness of ciliates and their prey in waters of varying hydrographic conditions. Samples were taken throughout the water column, along a transect across the Irish Sea (54°N), at scales ranging from 0.15 to 10⁵ m. We examined physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. The eastern and western Irish Sea were stratified, with a pycnocline at ∼20 to 30 m. The central waters were mixed and had adjacent frontal regions. Euphotic depth was ∼20 to 35 m. Generally, the upper waters were nitrogen-limited, with elevated levels associated with frontal regions and deeper waters. Microphytoplankton exhibited fine-mesoscale patchiness: diatom numbers were low in stratified waters, with higher levels in mixed and frontal regions; dinoflagellates were abundant in subsurface waters near the fronts. Nanoflagellate numbers and biomass decreased with depth below the pycnocline, and exhibited microscale distribution in upper waters; these micropatches may provide increased food levels for ciliates. Microscale distribution of ciliates was rare and only occurred at mixed/frontal sites; finescale ciliate patches were a more prominent feature of the water column. These finescale patches can be composed of a variety of taxa but can also be virtually monospecific. Finescale patches may produce localised regions of high productivity that is available to fishes and copepods, but may also be a sink, as patches can be short-lived and thus unavailable to predators. Received: 28 September 1998 / Accepted: 26 January 1999     

Interannual, seasonal, local and body size variations in reproduction of the prawn Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus (Crustacea: Decapoda: Penaeidae) in the Ariake Sea and Tachibana Bay, Japan

 The reproductive biology of female Penaeus japonicus Bate was investigated in the Ariake Sea and Tachibana Bay (located outside the Ariake Sea), Japan from 1994 to 1996. Interannual, seasonal, individual female body size and spatial influences on the incidence of spawning were examined. The proportion of inseminated females, increased with increasing body size up to 170 mm body length (BL) and decreased thereafter. The minimum size at maturity was similar between years; 130 to 140 mm BL. The minimum size of individuals with developing ovaries or spermatophores differed from that of ripe females by 20 to 25 mm. Spawning occurred in the central part of the Ariake Sea and Tachibana Bay but rarely in the inner part. P. japonicus had a clear reproductive cycle. Spawning started earlier and ended later, occurring from mid-May to mid-October, in the eastern central part of and outside of the Ariake Sea compared with the western central part, where spawning occurred from mid-June to mid-September. Spawning dynamics differed across seasons, body sizes and areas but not across years. The seasonal peak in the proportion of ripe females varied with body size. In small individuals (130 to 169 mm BL), no peak was observed, whereas in large individuals (>170 mm BL) the proportion of ripe individuals peaked in June. The proportion of ripe individuals increased with increasing body size and was high outside the Ariake Sea. Factors causing the variation in spawning dynamics are discussed. Received: 30 November 1998 / Accepted: 12 October 1999     

Mycosporine-like amino acids: possible UV protection in eggs of the sea hare Aplysia dactylomela

We investigated mycosporine amino acid (MAA) involvement as protective sunscreens in spawn of the sea hare Aplysia dactylomela to determine if adult diet and ultraviolet (UV) exposure affected the UV sensitivity of developing embryos. Adults were fed a red alga rich in MAAs (Acanthophora spicifera) or a green alga poor in MAAs (Ulva lactuca). Adults on each diet were exposed for 2 wk to ambient solar irradiance with two types of acrylic filters; one allowed exposure to wavelengths >275 nm (designated UV) and one to wavelengths only >410 nm (designated NOUV). Spawn from each adult group was likewise treated with UV or NOUV and monitored during development for differences in mortality and metabolic rate (measured as oxygen consumption: V˙ _O2). Also recorded were number of eggs or embryos per capsule, times to hatching, hatching success, size at hatching, and V˙ _O2 of adults. Spawn from adults eating red algae was almost twice as rich in MAAs as spawn from adults eating green algae, suggesting that MAA content is diet-related. Although overall quantities of MAAs in the spawn reflected MAA contents of the adult diet, specific MAAs were differentially sequestered in the spawn. Thus, porphyra-334, found in high concentration in Aplysia dactylomela's preferred red algal food, was present in only low concentration in the spawn. Conversely, mycosporine-glycine, in low concentration in red algal food, was the most abundant MAA in the spawn. UV treatment of adults had no effect on quantities of MAAs in the spawn. Adults exposed to UV had significantly higher V˙ _O2s and spawned twice as often. The UV-treated adults produced spawn with significantly higher V˙ _O2s and their embryos developed to hatching sooner. The only significant effect of UV exposure of the spawn was to reduce the percentage of veligers hatching from 71 to 50%. There was no significant effect on hatching time or size of the veligers at hatching, nor on number of eggs per capsule. Received: 13 May 1997 / Accepted: 27 June 1997     

Nitrogen- vs. phosphorus-based dairy manure applications to field crops: nitrate and phosphorus leaching and soil phosphorus accumulation

Management of animal manures to provide nutrients for crop growth has generally been based on crop N needs. However, because manures have a lower N/P ratio than most harvested crops, N-based manure management often oversupplies the crop-soil system with P, which can be lost into the environment and contribute to eutrophication of water bodies. We examined the effects of N- vs. P-based manure applications on N and P uptake by alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), corn (Zea mays L.) for silage, and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), leaching below the root zone, and accumulation of P in soil. Treatments included N- and P-based manure rates, with no nutrient input controls and inorganically fertilized plots for comparison. Nitrate concentrations in leachate from inorganic fertilizer or manure treatments averaged 14 mg NO(3)-N L(-1), and did not differ by nutrient treatment. Average annual total P losses in leachate did not exceed 1 kg ha(-1). In the top 5 cm of soil in plots receiving the N-based manure treatment, soil test P increased by 47%, from 85 to 125 mg kg(-1). Nitrogen- and P-based manure applications did not differ in ability to supply nutrients for crop growth, or in losses of nitrate and total P in leachate. However, the N-based manure led to significantly greater accumulation of soil test P in the surface 5 cm of soil. Surface soil P accumulation has implications for increased risk of off-field P movement.     

Penetration of herbicides to groundwater in an unconfined chalk aquifer following normal soil applications

The persistence and penetration of the herbicides isoproturon and chlorotoluron in an unconfined chalk aquifer has been monitored over a 4-year period through soil sampling, shallow coring and groundwater monitoring. Chlorotoluron was applied on plots as a marker compound, having never been used previously on that, or surrounding fields. The fieldsite had a 5 degree slope with soil depths of 0.5 to 1.5 m and a water table between 20 and 5 m from the soil surface. Where the water table was deepest (9-20 m below surface (mbs)) little or no positive herbicide detections were made. However, where the water table was at only 4-5 mbs, a regular pesticide signal of around 0.1 microg/l for isoproturon and chlorotoluron could be distinguished. Over the winter recharge period automatic borehole samplers revealed a series of short-lived peaks of isoproturon and chlorotoluron reaching up to 0.8 microg/l. This is consistent with a preferential flow mechanism operating at this particular part of the field. Such peaks were occurring over 2 years after the last application of these compounds. Shallow coring failed to uncover any significant pesticide pulse moving through the deep unsaturated zone matrix at the fieldsite.     

Deposition and Storage of Spheroidal Carbonaceous Fly-Ash Particles in European Mountain Lake Sediments and Catchment Soils

Spheroidal carbonaceous particles(SCPs) are produced only from high temperaturecombustion of fossil-fuels. In mountain lakesystems, they provide an unambiguous indicator ofatmospheric deposition. In order to comparedepositional fluxes of SCPs between mountainareas experiencing various pollutant regimes,intensive bulk deposition sampling was undertakenat five sites across Europe. Catchment soil coresand lake sediment cores were also taken at eachsite to compare SCP storage over the post-industrial period. Atmospheric, sediment and soilSCP data showed similar patterns. Highestcontamination was found in Scotland, Slovakia andSpain with the Austrian site intermediate and themid-Norwegian site least contaminated. A highproportion of accumulated SCPs were found to bestored in catchment soils at each site.Therefore, a significant increase in soilerosion, possibly as a result of future climatechange, could lead to the input of largequantities of catchment stored SCPs and, byimplication, other atmospherically depositedcontaminants to the lake ecosystem.     

Rhizosphere acidification and cadmium uptake by strawberry clover

Strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum L.) is a hardy legume found in indigenous or introduced populations throughout the world. Tolerance to saline and alkaline soils, flooding, and heavy metals make it a good prospect for reclamation projects. The research, described here, was conducted to: (i) characterize the morphological variation in plants from available seed sources, (ii) evaluate cadmium uptake and tolerances over a wide range of morphological variants, and (iii) elucidate the variability in the effects of roots on rhizosphere pH and the relationship to cadmium uptake. Seeds from selected accessions were planted in the greenhouse for comparison of morphological variation. The accessions examined had a mean height of 10.7+/-7 cm. Accessions 254916 and 237925 are tall with high rhizosphere pH values and might be useful in phytoremediation. Strawberry clover accessions were also grown hydroponically to examine differences in cadmium uptake. The ability of strawberry clover roots to change rhizosphere pH and take up cadmium was examined using culture tubes containing nutrient agar, a moderate level of cadmium, and a pH indicator dye. The results provided evidence for a negative correlation between rhizosphere pH and cadmium uptake.