A new approach to quantify the degradation kinetics of linuron with UV, ozonation and UV/O3 processes

The degradation of linuron, one of phenylurea herbicides, was investigated for its reaction kinetics by different treatment processes including ultraviolet irradiation (UV), ozonation (O₃), and UV/O₃. The decay rate of linuron by UV/O₃ process was found to be around 3.5 times and 2.5 times faster than sole-UV and ozone-alone, respectively. Experimental results also indicate overall rate constants increased exponentially with pH above 9.0 while the increase of rate constants with pH below 9 is insignificant in O₃ system. All dominant parameters involved in the three processes were determined in the assistant of proposed linear models in this study. The approach was found useful in predicting the process performances through the quantification of quantum yield (rate constant for the formation of free radical HOO⁻ from ozone decomposition at high pH), rate constant of linuron with ozone (k_O3,LNR), rate constant of linuron with hydroxyl radical (k_OH,LNR), and α (the ratio of the production rate of OH and the decay rate of ozone in UV/O₃ system).     

Residential runoff as a source of pyrethroid pesticides to urban creeks

Pyrethroid pesticides occur in urban creek sediments at concentrations acutely toxic to sensitive aquatic life. To better understand the source of these residues, runoff from residential neighborhoods around Sacramento, California was monitored over the course of a year. Pyrethroids were present in every sample. Bifenthrin, found at up to 73 ng/L in the water and 1211 ng/g on suspended sediment, was the pyrethroid of greatest toxicological concern, with cypermethrin and cyfluthrin of secondary concern. The bifenthrin could have originated either from use by consumers or professional pest controllers, though the seasonal pattern of discharge from the drain was more consistent with professional use as the dominant source. Stormwater runoff was more important than dry season irrigation runoff in transporting pyrethroids to urban creeks. A single intense storm was capable of discharging as much bifenthrin to an urban creek in 3 h as that discharged over 6 months of irrigation runoff.     

An assessment of indoor air quality in recent Mexican immigrant housing in Commerce City, Colorado

An indoor air quality assessment was conducted on 100 homes of recent Mexican immigrants in Commerce City, Colorado, an urban industrial community north of Denver. Head of households were administered a family health survey, filled out an activity diary, and participated in a home inspection. Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) were measured for 24 h inside the main living area and outside of the homes. Harvard Impactors were used to collect 24-h samples of PM_2.5 at the same locations for gravimetric analysis. Dust samples were collected by vacuuming carpeting and flooring at four locations within the home and analyzed by ELISA for seven allergens. Mean indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 levels were 27.2 and 8.5 μg m⁻³, respectively. Indoor PM_2.5 and CO₂ were elevated in homes for which the number of hours with door/window open was zero compared to homes in which the number of hours was high (>15 h). Indoor PM_2.5 levels did not correlate with outdoor levels and tended to increase with number of inhabitants, and results indicate that the source of indoor particles were occupants and their activities, excluding smoking and cooking. Mean indoor CO₂ and CO levels were 1170 and 2.4 ppm, respectively. Carbon monoxide was higher than the 24-h National Ambient Air Quality Standard in 3 of the homes. The predominant allergens were cat (Fel d 1) and mouse (Mus m 1) allergens, found in 20 and 34 homes, respectively.     

Particle size distribution of airborne Aspergillus fumigatus spores emitted from compost using membrane filtration

Information on the particle size distribution of bioaerosols emitted from open air composting operations is valuable in evaluating potential health impacts and is a requirement for improved dispersion simulation modelling. The membrane filter method was used to study the particle size distribution of Aspergillus fumigatus spores in air 50 m downwind of a green waste compost screening operation at a commercial facility. The highest concentrations (approximately 8 × 10⁴ CFU m⁻³) of culturable spores were found on filters with pore diameters in the range 1–2 μm which suggests that the majority of spores are emitted as single cells. The findings were compared to published data collected using an Andersen sampler. Results were significantly correlated (p < 0.01) indicating that the two methods are directly comparable across all particles sizes for Aspergillus spores.     

A new direct thermal desorption-GC/MS method: Organic speciation of ambient particulate matter collected in Golden, BC

Particulate matter having an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) is thought to be implicated in a number of medical conditions, including cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, heart attack, and aging. However, very little chemical speciation data is available for the organic fraction of ambient aerosols. A new direct thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) method was developed for the analysis of the organic fraction of PM2.5. Samples were collected in Golden, British Columbia, over a 15-month period. n-Alkanes constituted 33–98% by mass of the organic compounds identified. PAHs accounted for 1–65% and biomarkers (hopanes and steranes) 1–8% of the organic mass. Annual mean concentrations were: n-alkanes (0.07–1.55 ng m⁻³), 16 PAHs (0.02–1.83 ng m⁻³), and biomarkers (0.02–0.18 ng m⁻³). Daily levels of these organics were 4.89–74.38 ng m⁻³, 0.27–100.24 ng m⁻³, 0.14–4.39 ng m⁻³, respectively. Ratios of organic carbon to elemental carbon (OC/EC) and trends over time were similar to those observed for PM2.5. There was no clear seasonal variation in the distribution of petroleum biomarkers, but elevated levels of other organic species were observed during the winter. Strong correlations between PAHs and EC, and between petroleum biomarkers and EC, suggest a common emission source – most likely motor vehicles and space heating.     

The development of effects-based air quality management regimes

This paper considers the evolution of attempts to control and manage air pollution, principally but not exclusively focussing upon the challenge of managing air pollution in urban environments. The development and implementation of a range of air pollution control measures are considered. Initially the measures implemented primarily addressed point sources, a small number of fuel types and a limited number of pollutants. The adequacy of such a source-control approach is assessed within the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate. An assessment of air quality management in the United Kingdom over a 50-year timeframe exemplifies the range of issues and challenges in contemporary air quality management. The need for new approaches is explored and the development and implementation of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated.     

Continuous measurement of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) in suburban and remote areas of western China

Knowledge on atmospheric abundance of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is important in assessing the severity of photochemical pollution, and for understanding chemical transformation of reactive odd nitrogen and its impact on the budget of tropospheric ozone (O₃). In summer 2006, continuous measurements of PAN were made using an automatic GC–ECD analyzer with an on-line calibrator at a suburban site of Lanzhou (LZ) and a remote site of Mt. Waliguan (WLG) in western China, with concurrent measurements of O₃, total reactive nitrogen (NO_y) and carbon monoxide (CO). At LZ, several photochemical episodes were observed during the study, and the average mixing ratio of PAN (plus or minus standard deviation) was 0.76 (±0.89) ppbv with the maximum value of 9.13 ppbv, compared to an average value of 0.44 (±0.16) ppbv at remote WLG. The PAN mixing ratios in LZ exhibited strong diurnal variations with a maximum at noon, while enhanced concentrations of PAN were observed in the evening and a minimum in the afternoon at WLG. The daily O₃ and PAN concentration maxima showed a strong correlation (r² = 0.91) in LZ, with a regression slope (PAN/O₃) of 0.091 ppbv ppbv^?1. At WLG, six well-identified pollution plumes (lasting 2–8 h) were observed with elevated concentrations of PAN (and other trace gases), and analysis of backward particle release simulation shows that the high-PAN events at WLG were mostly associated with the transport of air masses that had passed over LZ.     

Ultrafine particle fluxes above four major European cities

Little information is known about the behaviour of ultrafine particles (UFP) on a citywide scale. Total particle number flux, dominated by UFP, and other meteorological parameters were collected from tower sites in Manchester, London, Edinburgh and Gothenburg between 1999 and 2006 using the eddy covariance technique. Averaged diurnal cycles were produced for particle number flux, concentration, sensible heat flux, emission velocity, friction velocity, wind speed and temperature. UFP flux cycles showed clear diurnal trends which were linked to traffic activity and local sources. Wind sector analysis showed contributions to flux from local heavily urbanised areas. A simple parameterised model linking UFP flux to traffic activity, sensible heat and friction velocity above the city was produced.     

Ultrafine particles near a major roadway in Raleigh,North Carolina: Downwind attenuation and correlation with traffic-related pollutants

Ultrafine particles (UFPs, diameter < 100 nm) and co-emitted pollutants from traffic are a potential health threat to nearby populations. During summertime in Raleigh, North Carolina, UFPs were simultaneously measured upwind and downwind of a major roadway using a spatial matrix of five portable industrial hygiene samplers (measuring total counts of 20–1000 nm particles). While the upper sampling range of the portable samplers extends past the defined “ultrafine” upper limit (100 nm), the 20–1000 nm number counts had high correlation (Pearson R = 0.7–0.9) with UFPs (10–70 nm) measured by a co-located research-grade analyzer and thus appear to be driven by the ultrafine range. Highest UFP concentrations were observed during weekday morning work commutes, with levels at 20 m downwind from the road nearly fivefold higher than at an upwind station. A strong downwind spatial gradient was observed, linearly approximated over the first 100 m as an 8% drop in UFP counts per 10 m distance. This result agreed well with UFP spatial gradients estimated from past studies (ranging 5–12% drop per 10 m). Linear regression of other vehicle-related air pollutants measured in near real-time (10-min averages) against UFPs yielded moderate to high correlation with benzene (R² = 0.76), toluene (R² = 0.49), carbon monoxide (R² = 0.74), nitric oxide (R² = 0.80), and black carbon (R² = 0.65). Overall, these results support the notion that near-road levels of UFPs are heavily influenced by traffic emissions and correlate with other vehicle-produced pollutants, including certain air toxics.     

Rapid measurement of emissions from military aircraft turbine engines by downstream extractive sampling of aircraft on the ground: Results for C-130 and F-15 aircraft

Aircraft emissions affect air quality on scales from local to global. More than 20% of the jet fuel used in the U.S. is consumed by military aircraft, and emissions from this source are facing increasingly stringent environmental regulations, so improved methods for quickly and accurately determining emissions from existing and new engines are needed. This paper reports results of a study to advance the methods used for detailed characterization of military aircraft emissions, and provides emission factors for two aircraft: the F-15 fighter and the C-130 cargo plane. The measurements involved outdoor ground-level sampling downstream behind operational military aircraft. This permits rapid change-out of the aircraft so that engines can be tested quickly on operational aircraft. Measurements were made at throttle settings from idle to afterburner using a simple extractive probe in the dilute exhaust. Emission factors determined using this approach agree very well with those from the traditional method of extractive sampling at the exhaust exit. Emission factors are reported for CO₂, CO, NO, NO_x, and more than 60 hazardous and/or reactive organic gases. Particle size, mass and composition also were measured and are being reported separately. Comparison of the emissions of nine hazardous air pollutants from these two engines with emissions from nine other aircraft engines is discussed.