Effective Regulations with Little Effect? The Antecedents of the Perceptions of Environmental Officials on Enforcement Effectiveness in China

Enforcement gaps are an especially vexing problem in China due to pervasive "pro-growth" local government priorities, the weak administrative capacity of environmental agencies themselves, and relatively weak levels of societal support for a cleaner environment. This study seeks to examine this problem from the perspective of the local enforcement officials by empirically examining the relationships between these and other influences on their perceptions of enforcement effectiveness. Using samples of enforcement officials from the fast-growing cities of Chengdu, Dalian, and Guangzhou, this study finds that many of the more commonly cited problems related to regulatory enforcement were not as influential in accounting for variations in perceptions of enforcement effectiveness than the current literature might suggest. Moreover, this study also finds that the pattern of influences varies greatly across jurisdictions, with only the officials' belief in the legitimacy of the governments' policies being significant in all three samples. Strong influences on perceptions of enforcement effectiveness in two of the three samples include the environmental values of enforcement officials, their perceptions of organizational capacity for enforcement, and their assessment of government support for environmental protection. Although government support was found to be a strong predictor of enforcement effectiveness in two of the three samples, the influence of societal support had a somewhat mixed and more complicated effect. In addition, this study suggests that further improvements in enforcement effectiveness may be possible by cultivating or selecting enforcement officials with strong environmental values and beliefs in the legitimacy of the government's environmental policy to take charge of enforcement. Because it is generally accepted that local environmental protection bureaus are generally upgrading their organizational capacity for improvement as the result of increasing central government support for environmental protection and institutional restructuring, and because environmental awareness in China is growing, this study suggests that some incremental progress is likely in China's efforts to close the enforcement gap. Unfortunately, such improvements are likely to be masked by the steep trajectory of economic growth, the narrow scope of regulatory control (i.e., with scant attention paid to nonindustrial sources), and the migration of industrial pollution to rural areas.     

Sequential element extraction of soils from abandoned farms: an investigation of the partitioning of anthropogenic element inputs from historic land use

Enhanced soil element concentrations may serve as indicators not only of modern pollution, but also of former historic and/or pre-historic human activity. However, there is little consensus over the most appropriate means of extraction for identifying chemical signatures of modern and archaeological pollution. This study addressed this question by using a 5-step sequential extraction to examine the partitioning of elements within the soil. Samples were taken from known functional areas (hearth, house, byre, arable, and grazing areas) on a 19th century abandoned croft (small farm). A hot nitric acid digest and five-stage sequential extraction method were used to examine the partitioning of elements in soil and identify the current elemental distribution of anthropogenic contamination. The results indicate that although a significant proportion of Ca tends to be bound with exchangeable and weak acid soluble fractions, in the hearth and house areas there is also a significant proportion held within the recalcitrant residue. Pb concentrations tend to be associated with organic matter, ammonium oxalate extractable fractions and the residue, whilst Zn generally has a more even partitioning between the six soil fractions. The implications of this for extraction methodology are element and soil specific. However, the presence of a significant proportion of anthropogenically significant elements (including Ca, Pb, Zn, Sr, and Ba) within the resistant residue suggests the use of only a weak acid or an exchangeable fraction extraction would result in the loss of information from contamination resulting from former human activity. Hence, a total or pseudo-total extraction method is recommended for this type of study.     

Trace analysis of off-flavor/odor compounds in water using liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with gas chromatography—positive chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid, inexpensive and laboratory friendly method was developed for analysis of off-flavor/odor compounds in fresh and salt water using gas chromatography with chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Off-flavor/odor compounds included geosmin, 2- methylisoborneol (MIB), 2-isobutyl-3-methyoxypyrazine (IBMP), and 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine (IPMP). Using this method, a single sample can be extracted within minutes using only 1 mL of organic solvent. The ion transitions for IPMP, IBMP, MIB, and geosmin were 153>121, 167>125, 152>95, and 165>109, respectively. The linearity of this method for analyzing MIB ranged from 4 to 200 ng·L^–1, and from 0.8 to 200 ng·L^–1 for the other analytes. Method recoveries ranged from 97% to 111% and percent relative standard deviations ranged from 3% to 9%, indicating that the method is accurate, precise, and reliable.     

The effects of elevated carbon dioxide levels on a Vibrio sp. isolated from the deep-sea

Introduction

The effect of oceanic CO₂ sequestration was examined exposing a deep-sea bacterium identified as Vibrio alginolyticus (9NA) to elevated levels of carbon dioxide and monitoring its growth at 2,750 psi (1,846 m depth).

Findings

The wild-type strain of 9NA could not grow in acidified marine broth below a pH of 5. The pH of marine broth did not drop below this level until at least 20.8 mM of CO₂ was injected into the medium. 9NA did not grow at this CO₂ concentration or higher concentrations (31.2 and 41.6 mM) for at least 72 h. Carbon dioxide at 10.4 mM also inhibited growth, but the bacterium was able to recover and grow. Exposure to CO₂ caused the cell to undergo a morphological change and form a dimple-like structure. The membrane was also damaged but with no protein leakage.     

Fluorescent dye imaging of the volume sampled by single well forced-gradient tracer tests evaluated in a laboratory-scale aquifer physical model

This study presents a new method to visualise forced-gradient tracer tests in 2-D using a laboratory-scale aquifer physical model. Experiments were designed to investigate the volume of aquifer sampled in vertical dipole flow tracer tests (DFTT) and push-pull tests (PPT), using a miniature monitoring well and straddle packer arrangement equipped with solute injection and recovery chambers. These tests have previously been used to estimate bulk aquifer hydraulic and transport properties for the evaluation of natural attenuation and other remediation approaches. Experiments were performed in a silica glass bead-filled box, using a fluorescent tracer (fluorescein) to deduce conservative solute transport paths. Digital images of fluorescein transport were captured under ultraviolet light and processed to analyse tracer plume geometry and obtain point-concentration breakthrough histories. Inorganic anion mixtures were also used to obtain conventional tracer breakthrough histories. Concentration data from the conservative tracer breakthrough curves was compared with the digital images and a well characterised numerical model. The results show that the peak tracer breakthrough response in dipole flow tracer tests samples a zone of aquifer close to the well screen, while the sampling volume of push-pull tests is limited by the length of the straddle packers used. The effective sampling volume of these single well forced-gradient tests in isotropic conditions can be estimated with simple equations. The experimental approach offers the opportunity to evaluate under controlled conditions the theoretical basis, design and performance of DFTTs and PPTs in porous media in relation to measured flow and transport properties.     

Soil bioassays as tools for sludge compost quality assessment

Composting is a waste management technology that is becoming more widespread as a response to the increasing production of sewage sludge and the pressure for its reuse in soil. In this study, different bioassays (plant germination, earthworm survival, biomass and reproduction, and collembolan survival and reproduction) were assessed for their usefulness in the compost quality assessment.Compost samples, from two different composting plants, were taken along the composting process, which were characterized and submitted to bioassays (plant germination and collembolan and earthworm performance). Results from our study indicate that the noxious effects of some of the compost samples observed in bioassays are related to the low organic matter stability of composts and the enhanced release of decomposition endproducts, with the exception of earthworms, which are favored. Plant germination and collembolan reproduction inhibition was generally associated with uncomposted sludge, while earthworm total biomass and reproduction were enhanced by these materials. On the other hand, earthworm and collembolan survival were unaffected by the degree of composting of the wastes. However, this pattern was clear in one of the composting procedures assessed, but less in the other, where the release of decomposition endproducts was lower due to its higher stability, indicating the sensitivity and usefulness of bioassays for the quality assessment of composts.     

Kinetic and 2D reactor modeling for simulation of the catalytic reduction of NOx in the monolith honeycomb reactor

Emission of NO_x is of primary environmental concern in the oil sands industry. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is one of the best NO_x reduction technologies. The present study discusses the testing of a mechanistic kinetic model for the SCR of NO_x to describe the kinetics of V₂O₅/TiO₂ catalysis at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 623 K in a monolith honeycomb reactor. The modeling results impart insight into the significance of the diffusion with reaction steps and guidance for optimal monolith design for SCR. The validated expression would predict the conversion performance of the catalysts for different values of temperature inlet and ammonia concentration. A good agreement between experimental and model results has been obtained. A heterogeneous numerical model consisting of coupled mass and momentum balance equations was solved using the finite elements method without neglecting the axial dispersion term. The operating range for the catalyst relies on the NO conversion and emission. The optimum operating range for the best performance of the reactor is discussed.     

Using heat to characterize streambed water flux variability in four stream reaches

Estimates of streambed water flux are needed for the interpretation of streambed chemistry and reactions. Continuous temperature and head monitoring in stream reaches within four agricultural watersheds (Leary Weber Ditch, IN; Maple Creek, NE; DR2 Drain, WA; and Merced River, CA) allowed heat to be used as a tracer to study the temporal and spatial variability of fluxes through the streambed. Synoptic methods (seepage meter and differential discharge measurements) were compared with estimates obtained by using heat as a tracer. Water flux was estimated by modeling one-dimensional vertical flow of water and heat using the model VS2DH. Flux was influenced by physical heterogeneity of the stream channel and temporal variability in stream and ground-water levels. During most of the study period (April-December 2004), flux was upward through the streambeds. At the IN, NE, and CA sites, high-stage events resulted in rapid reversal of flow direction inducing short-term surface-water flow into the streambed. During late summer at the IN site, regional ground-water levels dropped, leading to surface-water loss to ground water that resulted in drying of the ditch. Synoptic measurements of flux generally supported the model flux estimates. Water flow through the streambed was roughly an order of magnitude larger in the humid basins (IN and NE) than in the arid basins (WA and CA). Downward flux, in response to sudden high streamflows, and seasonal variability in flux was most pronounced in the humid basins and in high conductivity zones in the streambed.     

Removing cadmium from aqueous solutions utilizing agricultural wastes

The purpose of this study was to determine the cadmium (Cd) biosorption capacities of several agricultural wastes from aqueous solutions. Samples were tested unaltered and after hydrochloric acid treatment. Additional parameters tested include sample dose, contact time, particle size, mixing temperature, and the concentrations and pH of the Cd solutions. Desorption studies were performed to determine if the removed Cd could be recovered. In addition, tests were conducted to determine if the agricultural waste samples (AWS) could be reused for additional Cd biosorption cycles. The results of this study demonstrate a wide range of Cd biosorption proficiencies ranging from 33 to 100% removal. The parameters that resulted in higher Cd removal include higher sample dose, higher pH, and lower Cd solution concentration. Desorption results showed a 36–56% Cd recovery rate. Reused AWS were effective at removing Cd during subsequent trials. Therefore, all AWS types tested in this study can be reused for additional Cd biosorption cycles. Hence, it is possible that using AWS for metal treatment could reduce hazardous waste disposal inefficiencies and costs by avoiding disposing of spent AWS following each Cd biosorption cycle.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Arctic environments: indicator contaminants for assessing local and remote anthropogenic sources in a pristine ecosystem in change

A first review on occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is presented. The literature survey conducted here was initiated by the current Assessment of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). This first review on the occurrence and environmental profile of PPCPs in the Arctic identified the presence of 110 related substances in the Arctic environment based on the reports from scientific publications, national and regional assessments and surveys, as well as academic research studies (i.e., PhD theses). PPCP residues were reported in virtually all environmental compartments from coastal seawater to high trophic level biota. For Arctic environments, domestic and municipal wastes as well as sewage are identified as primary release sources. However, the absence of modern waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), even in larger settlements in the Arctic, is resulting in relatively high release rates for selected PPCPs into the receiving Arctic (mainly) aquatic environment. Pharmaceuticals are designed with specific biochemical functions as a part of an integrated therapeutically procedure. This biochemical effect may cause unwanted environmental toxicological effects on non-target organisms when the compound is released into the environment. In the Arctic environments, pharmaceutical residues are released into low to very low ambient temperatures mainly into aqueous environments. Low biodegradability and, thus, prolonged residence time must be expected for the majority of the pharmaceuticals entering the aquatic system. The environmental toxicological consequence of the continuous PPCP release is, thus, expected to be different in the Arctic compared to the temperate regions of the globe. Exposure risks for Arctic human populations due to consumption of contaminated local fish and invertebrates or through exposure to resistant microbial communities cannot be excluded. However, the scientific results reported and summarized here, published in 23 relevant papers and reports (see Table S1 and following references), must still be considered as indication only. Comprehensive environmental studies on the fate, environmental toxicology, and distribution profiles of pharmaceuticals applied in high volumes and released into the Nordic environment under cold Northern climate conditions should be given high priority by national and international authorities.