Sorbent-assisted liquid-liquid extraction (Chem-Elut) of polychlorinated biphenyls, dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the lipid fraction of human blood plasma

This work compares two lipid extraction methods for determining 24 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), seven dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and ten dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in human blood plasma. The first method was based on conventional liquid-liquid partitioning with chloroform-methanol and the other made use of a sorbent (Chem-Elut) to facilitate the partitioning of lipids into a mixture of hexane and 2-propanol. A multi-layer-silica column including acid- and base-impregnated silica gel was used to reduce the amounts of lipid present in the samples before a basic alumina clean-up step and activated carbon fractionation of planar analytes (PCDD/Fs and non-ortho-PCBs) and non-planar analytes (including ortho-chlorinated PCBs). Gas chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry was used to identify and quantify the analytes in the two fractions. The wet weight based concentrations obtained by the two methods were in agreement but both methods suffer from large organic solvent consumption. The toxic equivalencies derived for PCBs and PCDD/Fs using the two methods were also in agreement. However, the chloroform-methanol method gave slightly higher lipid recoveries, although with greater variation, than the sorbent-assisted method. Nevertheless, despite giving lower lipid recoveries, the sorbent-assisted method has advantages in ease of use and applicability to whole blood samples. The formation of emulsions was avoided with the Chem-Elut method, which probably explains the lower variability in the lipid determinations.     

Adsorption of sugar beet herbicides to Finnish soils

Three sugar beet herbicides, ethofumesate, phenmedipham and metamitron, are currently used on conventional sugar beet cultivation, while new varieties of herbicide resistant (HR) sugar beet, tolerant of glyphosate or glufosinate-ammonium, are under field testing in Finland. Little knowledge has so far been available on the adsorption of these herbicides to Finnish soils. The adsorption of these five herbicides was studied using the batch equilibrium method in 21 soil samples collected from different depths. Soil properties like organic carbon content, texture, pH and partly the phosphorus and oxide content of the soils were tested against the adsorption coefficients of the herbicides. In general, the herbicides studied could be arranged according to their adsorption coefficients as follows: glyphosate>phenmedipham>ethofumesate approximately glufosinate-ammonium>metamitron, metamitron meaning the highest risk of leaching. None of the measured soil parameters could alone explain the adsorption mechanism of these five herbicides. The results can be used in model assessments of risk for leaching to ground water resulting from weed control of sugar beet in Finland.     

Anaerobic decomposition of halogenated aromatic compounds

Halogenated compounds constitute one of the largest groups of environmental pollutants, partly as a result of their widespread use as biocides, solvents and other industrial chemicals. A critical step in degradation of organohalides is the cleavage of the carbon?halogen bond. Reductive dehalogenation is generally the initial step in metabolism under methanogenic conditions, which requires a source of reducing equivalents, with the halogenated compound serving as an electron acceptor. Dehalogenation is greatly influenced by alternate electron acceptors; e.g. sulfate frequently inhibits reductive dehalogenation. On the other hand, a number of halogenated aromatic compounds can be degraded under different electron-accepting conditions and their complete oxidation to CO(2) can be coupled to processes such as denitrification, iron(III)-reduction, sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. Reductive dehalogenation was the initial step in degradation not only under methanogenic, but also under sulfate- and iron(III)-reducing conditions. Dehalogenation rates were in general slower under sulfidogenic and iron-reducing conditions, suggesting that dehalogenation was affected by the electron acceptor. The capacity for dehalogenation appears to be widely distributed in anoxic environments; however, the different substrate specificities and activities observed for the halogenated aromatic compounds suggest that distinct dehalogenating microbial populations are enriched under the different reducing conditions. Characterization of the microbial community structure using a combination of biomolecular techniques, such as cellular fatty acid profiling, and 16 S rRNA fingerprinting/sequence analysis, was used to discern the distinct populations enriched with each substrate and under each electron-accepting condition. These combined techniques will aid in identifying the organisms responsible for dehalogenation and degradation of halogenated aromatic compounds.     

Fatty acids and ultrastructure of ozone-exposed Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) needles

Fifteen or 18-month-old Aleppo pine seedlings were fumigated with different concentrations and doses of ozone over a period of 2-16 days in controlled-environmental growth chambers. The total fatty acid content and ultrastructure of the current year needles were subsequently analysed. In acute, high concentration exposures, significant reductions in the levels of linolenic acid were detected. Increases in myristic or palmitic acid were common in needles exposed to lower concentrations of ozone. Ultrastructural studies revealed reductions in chloroplast size and a darkening of stroma at low ozone exposures while at high concentrations disruption of the chloroplast membranes was also identified.     

Effects of elevated O3 and CO2 on chlorophyll fluorescence and gas exchange in Scots pine during the third growing season

Naturally regenerated, 30-year-old Scots pines (Pinus Sylvestris L.) were grown in open-top chambers and exposed in situ to doubled ambient O(3), doubled ambient CO(2) and a combination of elevated O(3) and CO(2) from 15 April to 15 September for three growing seasons (1994-1996). To examine the effects of O(3) and/or CO(2) on photosynthesis, chlorophyll a fluorescence and gas exchange were measured simultaneously. Doubled ambient O(3) significantly decreased the rates of photosynthesis at all levels of photon flux density. This was related mainly to a significant decrease in the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PS II) and the rate of whole electron transport, rather than to a decrease in stomatal conductance. When measurements were made at doubled ambient concentration of CO(2) (700 micromol mol(-1)), doubled ambient CO(2) treatment did not lead to a significant change in the intrinsic capacity of photosynthesis, as manifested by no changes in PS II, the rate of electron transport, the maximal rate of photosynthesis and the apparent quantum yield of CO(2) assimilation. However, elevated CO(2) increased the sensitivity of stomatal conductance to light and decreased maximal stomatal conductance. When O(3) and CO(2) were combined, the O(3)-induced decrease in photosynthesis rate was reduced significantly by a high concentration of CO(2). This may be partly related to the decrease in stomatal conductance induced by the high concentration of CO(2). The complete mechanism behind this interaction is, however, still unclear.     

Polychlorinated phenols,guaiacols and catechols in environment

Emissions, bioaccumulation and possible food chain enrichment of polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols and catechols have been studied by analyses of water, snow, ash, benthic animal, fish and bird samples in Finland. Seventeen individual compounds were analyzed using authentic reference model compounds and internal standard by GC/ECD. Although the enrichment potential of the studied compounds appeared to be lower than that of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, they proved to be very general pollutants and some of them showed specific bioaccumulation to certain species and high persistency thus forming environmental hazards.     

Heavy metal pollution from a point source demonstrated by means of mussels, Mytilusedulis

Heavy metal pollution from a point source has been demonstrated by the levels of mercury in flesh of mussels, $\text{Mytilus}$$\text{edulis}$.     

Assessing village authenticity with satellite images: a method to identify intact cultural landscapes in Europe

The village with its characteristic zones of different land use from the center to the periphery is a basic unit of Europe's cultural landscapes. However, loss of the authentic pre-industrial village structure characterized by a fine-grained structure of arable land and wooded grasslands is a threat to both cultural heritage and biodiversity in many rural landscapes. Therefore, it is important that the extent and rate of change of such authentic villages in a landscape can be monitored. We studied to what extent loss of authenticity with increasing time after abandonment can be assessed by quantitative analysis and visual interpretation of satellite images. The study was carried out in the Bieszczady Mountains, SE Poland in 1999. Using Landsat Thematic Mapper data from 1998, both the grain size of landscape elements (size of fields) and land-cover composition (encroachment of shrub and forest) were quantitatively described 6 type villages representing different stages of deterioration of the authentic village structure. Historical maps were used to delineate the border of the villages and the former extension of forest and open land was measured. The present land use and the degree of abandonment expressed as grain size and forest encroachment were mapped using satellite data. Deterioration occurred along 2 transformation paths: abandonment and ultimately becoming forest, or intensified agriculture, respectively. To validate these results we classified 22 other villages in a 1000 km2 area by visual interpretation of the original satellite images into 1 of 4 types. We then collected historical data on human population changes over the past six decades. The classification of village authenticity was clearly related to the rate of human population decline. We address the importance of validating and applying this approach for rapid assessment of the authenticity of cultural landscapes in European regions being subject to ongoing as well as expected future change, related to expansion of the European Union. Finally, we argue that the village represents a scale at which integration of natural and social sciences is possible.     

Responses of spruce seedlings (Picea abies) to exhaust gas under laboratory conditions--II. Ultrastructural changes and stomatal behaviour

This study examines the effects of exhaust gas exposure on the epistomatal wax structure and mesophyll ultrastructure in needles of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings. Stomatal diffusive resistance was also measured. Two independent exhaust gas fumigations were performed: 100 and 200 ppb measured as NO(x), for 10 days and 50, 100 and 200 ppb NO(x) for 19 days. The obstructive effect of exhaust gas exposure on epistomatal wax tubules was apparent. The stomata became covered by flat and solid wax resulting from the structural degradation of the wax crystalloids. Increasing the exhaust gas concentration in the chamber atmosphere exacerbated the degradation of the wax structure. Exhaust gas exposure induced aggregation and electron translucence of plastoglobuli, swelling of thylakoids, increase of cytoplasmic lipids and slight increase of vesiculation of cytoplasm in mesophyll cells of current and previous year needles. These changes were exemplified in current year needles. Damage to the epicuticular waxes and mesophyll ultrastructure of spruce needles most likely reflects the NO(x) and volatile hydrocarbon fraction. The alterations in epicuticular waxes and mesophyll ultrastructure can be related to accelerated senescence of the youngest, photosynthetically active, needle generation. The exhaust gas also resulted in decreased diffusive stomatal resistance at night which indicates that the exhaust gas exposure disturbed the gas exchange of spruce seedlings. The results show that even relatively short-term exposure to realistic concentrations of exhaust gas in the atmosphere can induce rather severe injuries to the needle surface structure as well as ultrastructure at the cellular level.     

Influence of the atmospheric conductivity on the ozone exposure of plants under ambient conditions: Considerations for establishing ozone standards to protect vegetation

This paper provides results of ozone flux density measurements above a permanent grassland ecosystem as they relate to an establishment of air quality guidelines or standards. Using a resistance analogue, the product of zone concentration measured at a standard measurement height and the conductivity of the atmosphere reflect the maximum possible ozone flux density towards the envelope of the plants. In other words, this product can be regarded as the ozone exposure potential of the atmosphere for plants. It could be shown that ozone concentrations between 100 and 180 microg m(-3) are likely to have a great phytotoxic potential and are more important than concentrations greater than 180 microg m(-3). From the results presented one can deduce that the application of dose-response relationships based on chamber experiments to ambient conditions results in an overestimation of, for example, yield loses. Any guideline or standard has to take into account the influence of the atmospheric conductivity on the absorbed dose of ozone.