Latitudinal variation in the reproductive biology of the burrowing ghost shrimp Callianassa filholi (Decapoda: Thalassinidea)

Population structure and reproductive ecology of the burrowing ghost shrimp Callianassa filholi Milne-Edwards, 1878 were studied in populations along a latitudinal gradient throughout New Zealand during the breeding season. Size-frequency distributions revealed unimodal populations, with predominantly sexually mature shrimp. All populations showed an unbiased sex-ratio, and there appeared to be no significant difference in size (carapace length, CL) between sexes. At the same time, CL and size at maturity differed significantly between populations; however, a general increase in sizes from north to south was not consistent throughout the latitudinal range studied. The timing of the breeding cycle differed significantly between populations, and breeding started earlier in southern populations. Number of embryos (fecundity) increased linearly with female CL at each location, but rates differed significantly between populations. Embryo size was not related to number of embryos, and the former increased significantly with latitude. With the exception of embryo size, observed differences in body size/size at maturity and reproductive timing between C. filholi populations are thought to be determined by food availability rather than temperature. Thus, further study is suggested on these aspects of thalassinid reproductive biology. Received: 17 June 1999 / Accepted: 8 January 2000     

Mating behaviour of Macrophthalmus hirtipes (Brachyura: Ocypodidae)

 We examined the mating behaviour of the New Zealand ocypodid crab Macrophthalmus hirtipes in the laboratory between February and June 1998. This species has a discrete breeding season. Mating and moulting were not linked and only intermoult females with mobile gonopore opercula were attractive to males. Allometry and compatibility of gonopods and gonopores of different-sized crabs was investigated. Under laboratory conditions, the opercula of intermoult females remained mobile on average for 11.4 d, but the duration of receptivity did not appear to be under female control. The operational sex ratio in the laboratory fluctuated greatly, but was always male-dominated. During the period of opercular mobility, females mated many times with several different males. Matings in the absence of burrows were relatively short (mean duration = 23 min, max. = 122 min) and the mating behaviour of M. hirtipes lacked courtship and mate-guarding. Males used a search-intercept method to acquire mates, with very low levels of intrasexual competition. There was no evidence of mate preference in M. hirtipes, and males spent just as long mating with ovigerous females as with non-ovigerous ones. Although M. hirtipes has ventral-type spermathecae, as do several other ocypodid crabs, it is unclear whether this promotes last-male sperm precedence. The role of burrows in modifying the mating behaviour of M. hirtipes in the field remains to be established. Received: 7 January 2000 / Accepted: 5 June 2000     

Grazing rates of organic matter and living fungal biomass of decaying Spartina alterniflora by three species of salt-marsh invertebrates

 The pathway for the flow of salt-marsh grass production into marsh food-webs is still not well defined. We compared the abilities of three marsh macroinvertebrates [salt marsh periwinkles, Littoraria irrorata (Say) (=Littorina irrorata), salt-marsh coffee-bean snails, Melampus bidentatus (Say); and a talitrid amphipod, Uhlorchestia spartinophila Bounsfield and Heard] to access standing-dead leaves of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora Loisel). The invertebrates were incubated with naturally-decaying leaves, and the rates of removal of organic matter and living fungal biomass (ergosterol) were measured. The impact of invertebrate activity upon fungal growth rates was measured as rates of fungal-membrane synthesis (incorporation of radioacetate into ergosterol). The removal rates of organic leaf biomass per mg individual biomass were highest for amphipods (700 μg mg⁻¹ d⁻¹) and lowest for periwinkles (90 μg mg⁻¹ d⁻¹), but the relatively large biomass of the snails made their removal rates per individual greater than those of amphipods. Net removal of ergosterol by all three invertebrates was >50% for yellow-brown (early-decay) leaf blades. For fully-brown (advanced-decay) blades, >50% removal of ergosterol was found only for periwinkles; exposure to coffee-bean snails and amphipods resulted in a net ergosterol reduction of ≤20%. The lower net reduction of living fungal biomass by coffee-bean snails and amphipods may have been due to fungal-growth stimulation (2.3-fold stimulation in coffee-bean snails and 1.5-fold stimulation in amphipods). Grazing by periwinkles did not stimulate fungal growth, possibly because of its high intensity. Grazing by these three salt-marsh shredders may affect marsh-grass shoot-decay in different ways. Periwinkles may abbreviate the period of fungal production, and incorporate the decaying material relatively quickly into snail biomass and fecal-pellet rain to the sediments. Coffee-bean snails and amphipods may enhance and prolong fungal production, along with the formation of fecal-pellet rain. All three invertebrates fed preferentially on leaf blades rather than leaf sheaths, and feeding rates of gastropods were higher during the night than during the day. Received: 25 November 1998 / Accepted: 4 November 1999     

Allozyme electrophoresis indicates high gene flow between populations of Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis (Holothuroidea: Aspidochirotida) on the Great Barrier Reef

 Genetic variation in 15 Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis (Selenka, 1867) populations on the Great Barrier Reef was studied at seven polymorphic allozyme loci. Although populations were separated by distances up to 1300 km, there were no apparent restrictions to gene flow (F _ST values were not significantly different from 0) and the maximum Nei's unbiased genetic distance was 0.003. Populations were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium at all loci. The estimated maximum sexual input [this is the ratio of the number of sexually produced individuals (N*) to the sample size (N _i )] and the minimum sexual input [this is the ratio of the number of genotypes (N _go ) over the sample size (N _i )] were used as estimators for the amount of asexual reproduction. Both parameters suggested that H. nobilis reproduces solely by sexual means (N*:N _i : = 1; N _go :N _i  = 0.74 to 1). The allozyme data indicated high gene flow between populations, but the possibility that allozyme frequencies may not be at equilibrium means that it was not possible to distinguish whether the patterns reflect present-day dispersal or dispersal that occurred in the past. Received: 27 March 2000 / Accepted: 29 June 2000     

The nature of heat coma in Littorina littorea (Mollusca: Gastropoda)

 The nature of heat coma was examined in the edible periwinkle Littorina littorea (L.). Duration of acclimation did not influence heat-coma temperature at 12 °C, although other acclimation temperatures were important in influencing thermal tolerance, with positive shifts in coma temperature observed in response to elevated temperatures. Previous thermal history also influenced heat-coma temperatures. Individuals subjected to repeat heat-coma events on a daily basis showed significant declines (P < 0.05) in coma-temperature; in contrast individuals exposed to repeat heat-coma events on a weekly basis showed no decline in thermal tolerance. Size-effects occurred at selected sites, where decreased heat-coma temperatures were recorded in large individuals. Received: 16 August 1999 / Accepted: 13 June 2000     

Metabolic differences between “demersal” and “pelagic” development of the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri

 Early development of the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri was examined under two differ-ent culture regimes: one to simulate development near-bottom (“demersal development”) and the other to simulate the development of embryos in the water column (“pelagic development”). When embryos of both treatments reached the hatching blastula stage at 5 d post-fertilization (−1.5 °C), the blastulae that had undergone demersal development evidenced significant differences (by ANOVA or suitable non-parametric comparison) in the following: a thicker blastoderm layer (12%, P < 0.001), higher ash-free dry weights (19%, P < 0.01), lower mass-specific respiration rates (50%, P < 0.001), higher incorporation rates of ³⁵S-methionine into protein (23%, P < 0.003), and a differential pattern of protein synthesis. When embryos developed demersally, they remained in the jelly-coat material released with the eggs at spawning. Quantitative isolation of this jelly-coat material in S. neumayeri demonstrated that it contained a significant amount of organic matter, 115 ng ash-free dry mass per egg, equivalent to 17% of the egg's initial organic mass. Uptake of external nutrients during embryogenesis may be a significant component of the physiological energetics of this polar invertebrate by allowing the utilization of jelly-coat material released by a female during spawning. Received: 21 April 1999 / Accepted: 5 June 2000     

Simultaneous hermaphroditism in the marine shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni (Caridea: Hippolytidae): an undescribed sexual system in the decapod Crustacea

Simultaneous hermaphroditism with outcrossing, a previously unconfirmed sexual system in decapod crustaceans, is documented in the shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni (Gibbes), using time-lapse video observations on mating in pairs of “female-phase” (FP) individuals. Copulations between FPs resulted in successful spawning and development of embryos. However, female-phase hermaphrodites maintained in isolation were unable to self-fertilize spawned eggs. All smaller individuals possessed characters typical of caridean males, including male gonopores, appendices masculinae, ejaculatory ducts, and cincinnuli on the first pleopods. However, the gonad of these male-phase (MP) individuals was an ovotestis with an undeveloped ovarian portion. FPs, which spawn eggs and incubate embryos, also had male gonopores and an ovotestis terminating in ejaculatory ducts containing sperm. In FPs, male pleopod characters were absent or reduced, and a female incubatory character, expanded pleopod flanges, showed a greater relative size. Smaller size classes of the population were composed only of MPs while larger size classes consisted of both MPs and FPs. “Transitionals,” individuals with MP characters but an ovotestis containing vitellogenic oocytes, were rare and overlapped completely in size with FP and larger MP individuals. It is suggested that not all MPs transform into FP hermaphrodites. Social interactions may mediate MP change into FP hermaphrodites in L. wurdemanni. The social system of L. wurdemanni and other Lysmata spp. may determine the exact form of the sexual system in these species. Received: 26 October 1997 / Accepted: 21 April 1998     

Male characteristics, sperm traits, and reproductive success in winter-spawning Celtic Sea Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus

The relationship between sperm characteristics and reproductive success was examined in male herring, Clupea harengus L. Males were categorised as being first-time or repeat spawners on the basis of their age; they were also grouped according to whether their sperm were immediately active and exhibited forward motion on contact with seawater (FM) or had little or only vibratory motion (VM). Unlike the Pacific herring C. pallasii Valencienes, Atlantic herring sperm is usually motile on contact with seawater. The age, weight and gonadosomatic index (testes mass as a percentage of somatic mass = GSI) were measured and used as characteristics for individual fish. Sperm traits measured were (1) adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration, (2) sperm count, (3) duration of sperm motility. Reproductive success for each male was estimated from the fertilisation rate and from the length of larvae at hatching. Fertilisation rates for all fish were generally >80%. The ATP concentration of non-activated spermatozoa was negatively correlated with fertilisation rate. Among repeat spawners, fish with higher GSIs produced larvae that were larger at hatching. Although VM sperm fertilised eggs at rates equivalent to fertilisation by FM sperm, the larvae produced by VM sperm were significantly smaller at hatching. Larval length tended to increase in parallel with the duration of sperm motility, but the relationship was not significant in these tests. The results did not indicate any age or size pattern to spawning readiness in male herring. Sperm that are not yet ready to be shed are not fully motile on contact with seawater, but are still capable of fertilising eggs that hatch successfully. There is likely to be a progression of males which come into spawning readiness within a spawning shoal; therefore it is possible that paternal influences would result in a progressive decrease in larval size over the spawning period in winter-spawning Celtic Sea herring. Received: 22 November 1997 / Accepted: 8 June 1998     

Distribution and relative abundance of Pseudocalanus moultoni and P. newmani (Copepoda: Calanoida) on Georges Bank using molecular identification of sibling species

The sibling species, Pseudocalanus moultoni (Frost, 1989) and P. newmani (Frost, 1989), occur sympatrically on Georges Bank. Taxonomic discrimination of the species relies on subtle morphological characteristics, making routine identification of the species very difficult. DNA sequence variation of two mitochondrial genes, 16S rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I (COI), reliably discriminated P. moultoni and P.␣newmani. Levels of DNA sequence variation for both genes were consistent with those between species of calanoid copepods. A molecular systematic protocol (based on allele-specific PCR amplification) was designed from the COI sequences and used to discriminate females of the two species. The distributions and relative abundances of the two species were mapped for April 1996 based on samples of 15 to 30 females from 12 collections across Georges Bank. The results of this study indicated that P. moultoni females predominated along the northern flank of Georges Bank, while P. newmani females were common on the southern flank, deeper than the 60-m isobath. Received: 16 May 1997 / Accepted: 26 April 1998     

Recovery of benthic communities at Macquarie Island (sub-Antarctic) following a small oil spill

Intertidal communities at Macquarie Island (sub-Antarctic) were re-evaluated seven years after a small oil spill resulting from the grounding of the “Nella Dan”, and six years after the first assessment of biological impact. Sampling was conducted to evaluate community structure in three zones of the exposed rocky shore (upper red, kelp, and lower red) and in samples of Durvillaea antarctica holdfasts. There were no significant differences between the community structure in oiled and control locations in any of the three shore zones, but holdfast macrofaunal communities at oiled sites still showed evidence of impact. Holdfast community-structure in samples from heavily oiled sites showed moderate levels of recovery, with increased abundances of species which were considered sensitive to the oiling in the first post-impact studies and decreased abundances of opportunistic polychaete and oligochaete worms. In contrast, samples collected from the moderately oiled location at Secluded Bay showed little evidence of recovery. Holdfasts at this site were filled with sediment containing traces of diesel oil, and the macrofaunal community was dominated by opportunistic worms. This study clearly indicates that even small incidents of anthropogenic perturbation can have long-lasting consequences for marine communities at Macquarie Island. Received: 23 July 1997 / Accepted: 5 February 1998