Assessing and Monitoring the Health of Western Rangeland Watersheds

The most important function of watersheds in the western U.S. is the capacity to retain soil and water, thereby providing stability in hydrologic head and minimizing stream sediment loads. Long-term soil and water retention varies directly with vegetation cover. Data on ground cover and plant species composition were collected from 129 sites in the Rio Grande drainage of south-central New Mexico. This area was previously assessed by classification of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometry (AVHRR) imagery. The classification of irreversibly degraded sites failed to identify most of the severely degraded sites based on size of bare patches and 35% of the sites classified as degraded were healthy based on mean bare patch size and vegetation cover. Previous research showed that an index of unvegetated soil (bare patch size and percent of ground without vegetative cover) was the most robust indicator of the soil and water retention function. Although the regression of mean bare patch size on percent bare ground was significant (p < 0.001), percent bare ground accounted for only 11% of the variability in bare patch size. Therefore bare patch size cannot be estimated from data on percent bare ground derived from remote sensing. At sites with less than 25% grass cover, and on sites with more than 15% shrub cover, there were significant relationships between percent bare soil and mean bare patch size (p < 0.05). Several other indicators of ecosystem health were related to mean bare patch size: perennial plant species richness (r = 0.6, p < 0.0001), percent cover of increaser species (r = 0.5, p < 0.0001) and percent cover of forage useable by livestock (r = 0.62, p < 0.0001). There was no relationship between bare patch size and cover of species that are toxic to livestock. In order to assess the ability of western rangeland watersheds to retain soil and water using remote sensing, it will be necessary to detect and estimate sizes of bare patches ranging between at least 0.5 m in diameter to several meters in diameter.     

Characterizing agrochemical patterns and effective BMPs for surface waters using mechanistic modeling and GIS

Monitoring programs in the agriculturally intense San Joaquin River Valley of California have periodically found organophosphate (OP) insecticide concentrations, predominantly chlorpyrifos, diazinon and methidathion, at levels high enough to cause mortality for the aquatic invertebrate Ceriodaphnia dubia. These detections are likely the result of off-site movement from treated fields. However, the relative significance and magnitude of off-site transport pathways cannot be readily deduced from monitoring data alone. Therefore, a comprehensive modeling system has been constructed to estimate temporal and spatial pesticide source magnitudes and to follow the pesticide dissipation pathways once in surface water. The USEPA models HSPF and PRZM3 were used for the hydrology and non-point source predictions, respectively. Spray drift was accounted for using the mechanistic model AgDrift. The Orestimba Creek Watershed in the San Joaquin Valley was characterized and used as a typical watershed for this region. Representative transport pathways were ranked and quantified, and numerical implementation of best management practices (BMPs) determined which practice may have the highest likelihood for reducing pesticide loadings. Approximately 85% of the predicted chlorpyrifos mass detected between May 1, 1996, and April 30, 1997 resulted from drift, with the largest contributions coming from walnut orchards immediately adjacent to Orestimba Creek. Various simulated drift mitigation measures suggest chlorpyrifos mass loadings can be decreased by over 90% depending upon the type of mitigation chosen. Imposed drift BMPs should be effective in reducing chlorpyrifos levels found in surface waters of the San Joaquin valley if the Orestimba creek watershed is considered representative of watersheds found in this area of California.     

Estimating vertebrate,benthic macroinvertebrate,and diatom taxa richness in raftable Pacific Northwest rivers for bioassessment purposes

The number of sites sampled must be considered when determining the effort necessary for adequately assessing taxa richness in an ecosystem for bioassessment purposes; however, there have been few studies concerning the number of sites necessary for bioassessment of large rivers. We evaluated the effect of sample size (i.e., number of sites) necessary to collect vertebrate (fish and aquatic amphibians), macroinvertebrate, and diatom taxa from seven large rivers in Oregon and Washington, USA during the summers of 2006–2008. We used Monte Carlo simulation to determine the number of sites needed to collect 90–95% of the taxa 75–95% of the time from 20 randomly located sites on each river. The river wetted widths varied from 27.8 to 126.0 m, mean substrate size varied from 1 to 10 cm, and mainstem distances sampled varied from 87 to 254 km. We sampled vertebrates at each site (i.e., 50 times the mean wetted channel width) by nearshore-raft electrofishing. We sampled benthic macroinvertebrates nearshore through the use of a 500-μm mesh kick net at 11 systematic stations. From each site composite sample, we identified a target of 500 macroinvertebrate individuals to the lowest possible taxon, usually genus. We sampled benthic diatoms nearshore at the same 11 stations from a 12-cm² area. At each station, we sucked diatoms from soft substrate into a 60-ml syringe or brushed them off a rock and rinsed them with river water into the same jar. We counted a minimum of 600 valves at 1,000× magnification for each site. We collected 120–211 diatom taxa, 98–128 macroinvertebrate taxa, and 14–33 vertebrate species per river. To collect 90-95% of the taxa 75-95% of the time that were collected at 20 sites, it was necessary to sample 11–16 randomly distributed sites for vertebrates, 13–17 sites for macroinvertebrates, and 16–18 sites for diatoms. We conclude that 12–16 randomly distributed sites are needed for cost-efficient sampling of vertebrate richness in the main stems of our study rivers, but 20 sites markedly underestimates the species richness of benthic macroinvertebrates and diatoms in those rivers.     

Monitoring conservation effectiveness in a global biodiversity hotspot: the contribution of land cover change assessment

Tropical forests, which play critical roles in global biogeochemical cycles, radiation budgets and biodiversity, have undergone rapid changes in land cover in the last few decades. This study examines the complex process of land cover change in the biodiversity hotspot of Western Ghats, India, specifically investigating the effects of conservation measures within the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. Current vegetation patterns were mapped using an IRS P6 LISS III image and this was used together with Landsat MSS data from 1973 to map land cover transitions. Two major and divergent trends were observed. A dominant degradational trend can be attributed to agricultural expansion and infrastructure development while a successional trend, resulting from protection of the area, showed the resilience of the system after prolonged disturbances. The sanctuary appears susceptible to continuing disturbances under the current management regime but at lower rates than in surrounding unprotected areas. The study demonstrates that remotely sensed land cover assessments can have important contributions to monitoring land management strategies, understanding processes underpinning land use changes and helping to inform future conservation strategies.     

Implications and concerns of deep-seated disposal of hydrocarbon exploration produced water using three-dimensional contaminant transport model in Bhit Area, Dadu District of Southern Pakistan

A three-dimensional contaminant transport model has been developed to simulate and monitor the migration of disposal of hydrocarbon exploration produced water in Injection well at 2,100 m depth in the Upper Cretaceous Pab sandstone, Bhit area in Dadu district of Southern Pakistan. The regional stratigraphic and structural geological framework of the area, landform characteristics, meteorological parameters, and hydrogeological milieu have been used in the model to generate the initial simulation of steady-state flow condition in the underlying aquifer’s layers. The geometry of the shallow and deep-seated characteristics of the geological formations was obtained from the drilling data, electrical resistivity sounding surveys, and geophysical well-logging information. The modeling process comprised of steady-state simulation and transient simulation of the prolific groundwater system of contamination transport after 1, 10, 30 years of injection. The contaminant transport was evaluated from the bottom of the injection well, and its short- and long-term effects were determined on aquifer system lying in varying hydrogeological and geological conditions.     

Effectiveness and potential ecological effects of offshore surface dispersant use during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: a retrospective analysis of monitoring data

The Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies (SMART) program was used during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill as a strategy to monitor the effectiveness of sea surface dispersant use. Although SMART was implemented during aerial and vessel dispersant applications, this analysis centers on the effort of a special dispersant missions onboard the M/V International Peace, which evaluated the effectiveness of surface dispersant applications by vessel only. Water samples (n?=?120) were collected from background sites, and under naturally and chemically dispersed oil slicks, and were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (TPAHs), total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and a chemical marker of Corexit® (dipropylene glycol n-butyl ether, DPnB). Water chemistry results were analyzed relative to SMART field assessments of dispersant effectiveness (“not effective,” “effective,” and “very effective”), based on in situ fluorometry. Chemistry data were also used to indirectly determine if the use of dispersants increased the risk of acute effects to water column biota, by comparison to toxicity benchmarks. TPAH and TPH concentrations in background, and naturally and chemically dispersed samples were extremely variable, and differences were not statistically detected across sample types. Ratios of TPAH and TPH between chemically and naturally dispersed samples provided a quantitative measure of dispersant effectiveness over natural oil dispersion alone, and were in reasonable agreement with SMART field assessments of dispersant effectiveness. Samples from “effective” and “very effective” dispersant applications had ratios of TPAH and TPH up to 35 and 64, respectively. In two samples from an “effective” dispersant application, TPHs and TPAHs exceeded acute benchmarks (0.81 mg/L and 8 μg/L, respectively), while none exceeded DPnB’s chronic value (1,000 μg/L). Although the primary goal of the SMART program is to provide near real-time effectiveness data to the response, and not to address concerns regarding acute biological effects, the analyses presented here demonstrate that SMART can generate information of value to a larger scientific audience. A series of recommendations for future SMART planning are also provided.     

Optimising the sampling effort in riparian surveys

Riparian condition is commonly measured as part of stream health monitoring programs as riparian vegetation provides an intricate linkage between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Field surveys of a riparian zone provide comprehensive riparian attribute data but can be considerably intensive and onerous on resources and workers. Our objective was to assess the impact of reducing the sampling effort on the variation in key riparian health indicators. Subsequently, we developed a non-parametric approach to calculate an information retained (IR) statistic for comparing several constrained systematic sampling schemes to the original survey. The IR statistic is used to select a scheme that reduces the time taken to undertake riparian surveys (and thus potentially the costs) whilst maximising the IR from the original survey. Approximate bootstrap confidence intervals were calculated to improve the inferential capability of the IR statistic. The approach is demonstrated using riparian vegetation indicators collected as part of an aquatic ecosystem health monitoring program in Queensland, Australia. Of the nine alternative sampling designs considered, the sampling design that reduced the sampling intensity per site by sixfold without significantly comprising the quality of the IR, results in halving the time taken to complete a riparian survey at a site. This approach could also be applied to reducing sampling effort involved in monitoring other ecosystem health indicators, where an intensive systematic sampling scheme was initially employed.     

Using a relative health indicator (RHI) metric to estimate health risk reductions in drinking water

When a new drinking water regulation is being developed, the USEPA conducts a health risk reduction and cost analysis to, in part, estimate quantifiable and non-quantifiable cost and benefits of the various regulatory alternatives. Numerous methodologies are available for cumulative risk assessment ranging from primarily qualitative to primarily quantitative. This research developed a summary metric of relative cumulative health impacts resulting from drinking water, the relative health indicator (RHI). An intermediate level of quantification and modeling was chosen, one which retains the concept of an aggregated metric of public health impact and hence allows for comparisons to be made across “cups of water,” but avoids the need for development and use of complex models that are beyond the existing state of the science. Using the USEPA Six-Year Review data and available national occurrence surveys of drinking water contaminants, the metric is used to test risk reduction as it pertains to the implementation of the arsenic and uranium maximum contaminant levels and quantify “meaningful” risk reduction. Uranium represented the threshold risk reduction against which national non-compliance risk reduction was compared for arsenic, nitrate, and radium. Arsenic non-compliance is most significant and efforts focused on bringing those non-compliant utilities into compliance with the 10 μg/L maximum contaminant level would meet the threshold for meaningful risk reduction.     

The mini mobile environmental monitoring unit: a novel bio-assessment tool

This paper introduces a new bio-assessment tool, the mini-mobile environmental monitoring unit (MMU). The MMU is a portable, lightweight, energy-efficient, miniaturized laboratory that provides a low-flow system for on-site exposure of aquatic animals to local receiving waters in a protected, controllable environment. Prototypes of the MMU were tested twice in week-long studies conducted during the summers of 2008 and 2009, and in a 12-day study in 2010. In 2008, fathead minnows and polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) were deployed downstream from the Hastings, Nebraska wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), a waterway known to contain estrogenic contaminants in biologically active concentrations. In 2009, minnows and POCIS were deployed downstream, upstream and within the Grand Island, Nebraska WWTP, a site where the estrogenic contaminants had been detected, but were found at levels below those necessary to directly impact fish. In 2010, an advanced prototype was tested at the Sauk Center, Minnesota WWTP to compare its performance with that of traditional fish exposure methods including caged fish and static-renewal laboratory testing of effluent. Results from the prototype illustrate the capabilities of the MMU and offer an inexpensive monitoring tool to integrate the effects of pollutant sources with temporally varying composition and concentration.     

Development and field trial of a household surface lead loading rate sampling device in a lead-contaminated community of southern Thailand

A new dust-collecting device was developed to assess surface lead loading rates in houses in communities contaminated with lead oxide dust used for caulking in nearby boat-repair yards. The device consists of two small glass sheets with total area of 1,200 cm² placed in two plastic trays suspended from the ceiling in the house for 3 months before wiping and sending the dust specimen for determination of lead content using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. After a pilot trial in four households, further data were collected from 43 matched pairs of boat-caulkers’ and neighboring control households. All devices were retained in the house for 3 months without any complaint. Static measurements of lead dust levels were also assessed in all households. The values significantly discriminated high from low lead exposure households (p = 0.015) and provided good correlations with floor lead loading (Spearman rank correlation coefficient, r = 0.39 to 0.62) and dust lead content (r = 0.53 to 0.64). This sampling method is an alternative to others which consume more household space or require a longer collection period.