Framing the Long-Term <Emphasis Type="Italic">In Situ</Emphasis> Liability Issue for Geologic Carbon Storage in the United States

This paper examines how legal standards of liability may apply to geologic carbon storage. The liability regime governing geologic carbon storage will shape the technology's cost-effectiveness and overall attractiveness. We classify potential sources of liability into operational, in situ, and climate liability. As a first step, we explore in situ liability in the United States. After summarizing legal standards of liability including negligence, breach of implied warranty, strict liability, and product liability, we discuss how liability may be addressed at the level of the federal government, state government, industry, and the firm. Finally, we address the implications of judicial treatment of liability for carbon storage, including the apportionment of liability and the adequacy of current regulations.     

Ecological impacts of early 21st century agricultural change in Europe – A review

The impacts of agricultural land use are far-reaching and extend to areas outside production. This paper provides an overview of the ecological status of agricultural systems across the European Union in the light of recent policy changes. It builds on the previous review of 2001 devoted to the impacts of agricultural intensification in Western Europe. The focus countries are the UK, The Netherlands, Boreal and Baltic countries, Portugal, Hungary and Romania, representing a geographical spread across Europe, but additional reference is made to other countries. Despite many adjustments to agricultural policy, intensification of production in some regions and concurrent abandonment in others remain the major threat to the ecology of agro-ecosystems impairing the state of soil, water and air and reducing biological diversity in agricultural landscapes. The impacts also extend to surrounding terrestrial and aquatic systems through water and aerial contamination and development of agricultural infrastructures (e.g. dams and irrigation channels). Improvements are also documented regionally, such as successful support of farmland species, and improved condition of watercourses and landscapes. This was attributed to agricultural policy targeted at the environment, improved environmental legislation, and new market opportunities. Research into ecosystem services associated with agriculture may provide further pressure to develop policy that is targeted at their continuous provisioning, fostering motivation of land managers to continue to protect and enhance them.     

Structure-biodegradation relationships of polymeric materials. 1. Effect of degree of oxidation on biodegradability of carbohydrate polymers

The biodegradability of oxidized starch and inulin has been studied in relation to the degree of periodate oxidation to dialdehyde derivatives, by measuring oxygen consumption and mineralization to carbon dioxide. A higher degree of oxidation of dialdehyde starch and dialdchyde inulin results in a lower rate at which the polymers are biodegraded. It is demonstrated that the biodegradation rate of dialdehyde inulin derivatives decreases more than that of equivalent starch derivatives. The differences in biodegradation behavior between dialdehyde starch and dialdehyde inulin, resulting from comparable modifications, are discussed in terms of conformational structure.     

Waste materials for activated carbon preparation and its use in aqueous-phase treatment: a review

Commercial activated carbon is a preferred adsorbent for the removal of micropollutants from the aqueous phase; however, its widespread use is restricted due to high associated costs. To decrease treatment costs, attempts have been made to find inexpensive alternative activated carbon (AC) precursors, such as waste materials. Some reviews report the use of waste materials for the preparation of AC; however, these studies are restricted to either type of wastes, preparation procedures, or specific aqueous-phase applications. The present work reviews and evaluates literature dedicated both to the preparation of AC by recycling different types of waste materials and also to its application in various aqueous-phase treatments. It is clear that conventional (from agriculture and wood industry) and non-conventional (from municipal and industrial activities) wastes can be used to prepare AC, that can be applied in various aqueous treatment processes, namely to remove organic pollutants, dyes, volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals. Moreover, high surface areas can be obtained using either physical or chemical activation; however, combined treatments might enhance the surface properties of the adsorbent, therefore increasing its adsorption capacity. It is evident from the revision made that AC prepared from both conventional and non-conventional wastes might effectively compete with the commercial ones. This happens mostly when the activation procedures are optimized considering both the raw material used to produce the carbons and the contaminants to be removed.     

Innovation for sustainable development in artisanal mining: Advances in a cluster of opal mining in Brazil

The objective of this article is to understand how the promotion of clusters of small economic agents in the gem sector has brought some improvements in the economic, social and environmental conditions in the mining sector and activities related to it. The research provides policy and theoretical contributions to the field of gem production, as well as enhances understanding of the under researched opal production in Brazil. It argues that government funding and technical support dedicated to the development of mining clusters, i.e. working with small economic agents as a whole and not individually, could promote not only more economic development, but also effectively incorporate social and environmental issues, such as workers safety, water management and tailings recycling. The argument is based on an evaluation of environmental, economic, social and institutional aspects of the opal mining cluster in Pedro II municipality, Piauí state. The results suggest that some formalisation of existing practices and adequate policies have triggered innovation with some positive effects on the performance of artisanal mining. Nevertheless, there are indications that if decision-makers plan to make this cluster more sustainable, they will have to include other issues in the debate including developing substituting economic activities.     

Treatment and use of air pollution control residues from MSW incineration: an overview

This work reviews strategies for the management of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) residues, particularly solid particles collected from flue gases. These tiny particles may be retained by different equipment, with or without additives (lime, activated carbon, etc.), and depending on the different possible combinations, their properties may vary. In industrial plants, the most commonly used equipment for heat recovery and the cleaning of gas emissions are: heat recovery devices (boiler, superheater and economiser); dry, semidry or wet scrubbers; electrostatic precipitators; bag filters; fabric filters, and cyclones. In accordance with the stringent regulations in force in developed countries, these residues are considered hazardous, and therefore must be treated before being disposed of in landfills. Nowadays, research is being conducted into specific applications for these residues in order to prevent landfill practices. There are basically two possible ways of handling these residues: landfill after adequate treatment or recycling as a secondary material. The different types of treatment may be grouped into three categories: separation processes, solidification/stabilization, and thermal methods. These residues generally have limited applications, mainly due to the fact that they tend to contain large quantities of soluble salts (NaCl, KCl, calcium compounds), significant amounts of toxic heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Cd) in forms that may easily leach out, and trace quantities of very toxic organic compounds (dioxin, furans). The most promising materials for recycling this residue are ceramics and glass-ceramic materials. The main purpose of the present paper is to review the published literature in this field. A range of studies have been summarized in a series of tables focusing upon management strategies used in various countries, waste composition, treatment processes and possible applications.     

Respiration and lipid content of the Arctic copepod<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Calanus hyperboreus</Emphasis> overwintering 1 m above the seafloor at 2,300 m water depth in the Fram Strait

In August 2000 high concentrations of the dominant herbivorous copepod Calanus hyperboreus were detected in the Arctic Fram Strait, west of Spitsbergen, 1 m above the seafloor at 2,290 m water depth. Individuals from that layer were sampled by a hyper-benthic net attached to the frame of an epi-benthic sledge. For comparison, the vertical distribution of C. hyperboreus in the water column was studied simultaneously by a multiple opening/closing net haul from 2,250 m depth to the surface. Maximum abundance was found close to the surface with 6.6 and 10.0 ind. m^?3 at 0–50 m and 50–100 m depth, respectively. However, the major fraction of the population (>40%) occurred between 1,000 and 1,500 m depth. In the deepest layer (2,000–2,250 m) abundance measured 2.2 ind. m^?3 and was twice as high as between 100 and 1,000 m depth. In comparison to individuals from surface waters, copepods from the hyper-benthic layer were torpid and did not react to mechanical stimuli. Stage CV copepodids and females from the deep sample contained 4–10% less lipid and showed significantly reduced respiration rates of 0.24 and 0.26 ml O₂ h^?1 g^?1 dry mass (DM) as compared to surface samples (0.49 and 0.43 ml O₂ h^?1 g^?1 DM). All these observations indicate that the hyper-benthic part of the population had already started a dormant overwintering phase at great depth. Based on the lipid deposits and energy demands, the potential maximum duration of the non-feeding dormant phase was estimated at 76–110 days for females and at 98–137 days for CV copepodids, depending on what indispensable minimum lipid content was assumed. In any case, the estimated times could not meet the necessary requirements for a starvation period of >6 months until the next phytoplankton bloom in the following spring. The ecological implications of these results are discussed with respect to the life cycle and eco-physiological adaptations of C. hyperboreus to its high-Arctic habitat.     

Arsenic occurrence in Brazil and human exposure

Environmental exposure to arsenic (As) in terms of public health is receiving increasing attention worldwide following cases of mass contamination in different parts of the world. However, there is a scarcity of data available on As geochemistry in Brazilian territory, despite the known occurrence of As in some of the more severely polluted areas of Brazil. The purpose of this paper is to discuss existing data on As distribution in Brazil based on recent investigations in three contaminated areas as well as results from the literature. To date, integrated studies on environmental and anthropogenic sources of As contamination have been carried out only in three areas in Brazil: (1) the Southeastern region, known as the Iron Quadrangle, where As was released into the drainage systems, soils and atmosphere as a result of gold mining; (2) the Ribeira Valley, where As occurs in Pb-Zn mine wastes and naturally in As-rich rocks and soils; (3) the Amazon region, including the Santana area, where As is associated with manganese ores mined over the last 50 years. Toxicological studies revealed that the populations were not exposed to elevated levels of As, with the As concentrations in surface water in these areas rarely exceeding 10 microg/L. Deep weathering of bedrocks along with formation of Fe/Al-enriched soils and sediments function as a chemical barrier that prevents the release of As into the water. In addition, the tropical climate results in high rates of precipitation in the northern and southeastern regions and, hence, the As contents of drinking water is diluted. Severe cases of human As exposure related to non-point pollution sources have not been reported in Brazil. However, increasing awareness of the adverse health effects of As will eventually lead to a more complete picture of the distribution of As in Brazil.     

Behaviour of different lichen species as biomonitors of air pollution by PAHs in natural ecosystems

Six different species of lichens (Parmelia sulcata Tayl., Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach., Ramalina farinacea, Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf., Usnea sp. and Lobaria pulmonaria (Schreb.) Hoffm.) were collected in two mountain valleys in Central Pyrenees: the Aspe and Aragon valleys. Two multivariate techniques have been applied with different purposes, ANOVA and Discriminant Analysis (DA), to evaluate the data. The PAHs spatial distribution was studied in the three more abundant and widespread species in the area: P. sulcata, E. prunastri (L.) Ach. and R. farinacea in terms of total PAHs, PAHs related to the combustion processes and toxicity. Different behaviour of each lichen species to trap PAHs was found, being P. sulcata the best one to monitor the most persistent PAHs of pyrogenic origin and E. prunastri the most appropriate to provide information about pyrogenic and petrogenic PAHs. Traffic was the most relevant influence in PAHs bioaccumulation in lichen species.     

An integrated assessment of estrogenic contamination and biological effects in the aquatic environment of The Netherlands

An extensive study was carried out in the Netherlands on the occurrence of a number of estrogenic compounds in surface water, sediment, biota, wastewater, rainwater and on the associated effects in fish. Compounds investigated included natural and synthetic hormones, phthalates, alkylphenol(ethoxylate)s and bisphenol-A. The results showed that almost all selected (xeno-)estrogens were present at low concentrations in the aquatic environment. Locally, they were found at higher levels. Hormones and nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s were present in concentrations that are reportedly high enough to cause estrogenic effects in fish. Field surveys did not disclose significant estrogenic effects in male flounder (Platichthys flesus) in the open sea and in Dutch estuaries. Minor to moderate estrogenic effects were observed in bream (Abramis brama) in major inland surface waters such as lowland rivers and a harbor area. The prevalence of feminizing effects in male fish is largest in small regional surface waters that are strongly influenced by sources of potential hormone-disrupting compounds. High concentrations of plasma vitellogenin and an increased prevalence of ovotestes occurred in wild male bream in a small river receiving a considerable load of effluent from a large sewage treatment plant. After employing in vitro and in vivo bioassays, both in situ and in the laboratory, we conclude that in this case hormones (especially 17 alpha-ethynylestradiol) and possibly also nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s are primarily responsible for these effects.