The Ethics of Constrained Choice: How the Industrialization of Agriculture Impacts Farming and Farmer Behavior

The industrialization of agriculture not only alters the ways in which agricultural production occurs, but it also impacts the decisions farmers make in important ways. First, constraints created by the economic environment of farming limit what options a farmer has available to him. Second, because of the industrialization of agriculture and the resulting economic pressures it creates for farmers, the fact that decisions are constrained creates new ethical challenges for farmers. Having fewer options when faced with severe economic pressures is a very different situation for farmers than having many options available. We discuss the implications of constrained choice and show that it increases the likelihood that farmers will consider unethical behavior.     

Respecting The Autonomy of European and American Consumers: Defending Positive Labels on Gm Foods

In her recent article, “Does autonomy count in favor of labeling genetically modified food?,” Kirsten Hansen argues that in Europe, voluntary negative labeling of non-GM foods respects consumer autonomy just as well as mandatory positive labeling of foods with GM content. She also argues that because negative labeling places labeling costs upon those consumers that want to know whether food is GM, negative labeling is better policy than positive labeling. In this paper, we argue that Hansen’s arguments are mistaken in several respects. Most importantly, she underestimates the demands of respecting autonomy and overestimates the cost of positive labeling. Moreover, she mistakenly implies that only a small minority of people desire information about GM content. We also explore the extent to which her arguments would apply to the US context, and argue that any discussion of the relationship between autonomy and labeling should include not just considerations of consumer autonomy but also considerations of what we call citizen autonomy.     

Human Diets and Animal Welfare: the Illogic of the Larder

Few moral arguments have been made against vegetarian diets. One exception is the “Logic of the Larder:” We do animals a favor by purchasing their meat, eggs, and milk, for if we did not purchase these products, fewer animals would exist. This argument fails because many farm animals have lives that are probably not worth living, while others prevent a significant number of wild animals from existing. Even if this were not so, the purchase of animal products uses resources that could otherwise be used to bring a much greater number of animals into existence.     

Sustainable land application: an overview

Man has land-applied societal nonhazardous wastes for centuries as a means of disposal and to improve the soil via the recycling of nutrients and the addition of organic matter. Nonhazardous wastes include a vast array of materials, including manures, biosolids, composts, wastewater effluents, food-processing wastes, industrial by-products; these are collectively referred to herein as residuals. Because of economic restraints and environmental concerns about land-filling and incineration, interest in land application continues to grow. A major lesson that has been learned, however, is that the traditional definition of land application that emphasizes applying residuals to land in a manner that protects human and animal health, safeguards soil and water resources, and maintains long-term ecosystem quality is incomplete unless the earning of public trust in the practices is included. This overview provides an introduction to a subset of papers and posters presented at the conference, "Sustainable Land Application," held in Orlando, FL, in January 2004. The USEPA, USDA, and multiple national and state organizations with interest in, and/or responsibilities for, ensuring the sustainability of the practice sponsored the conference. The overriding conference objectives were to highlight significant developments in land treatment theory and practice, and to identify future research needs to address critical gaps in the knowledge base that must be addressed to ensure sustainable land application of residuals.     

Prescribed burning effects on summer elk forage availability in the subalpine zone, Banff National Park, Canada

The effects of prescribed burning on forage abundance and suitability for elk (Cervus elaphus) during the snow-free season was evaluated in east-central Banff National Park, Canada. Six coniferous forest and mixed shrub-herb plant communities (n=144 plots), and 5223ha of burned (n=131) vegetation <12 years old were sampled using a stratified semi-random design. Sampling units represented various combinations of vegetation, terrain conditions, and stand ages that were derived from digital biophysical data, with plant communities the basic unit of analysis. Burning coniferous forest stands reduced woody biomass, and increased herbaceous forage from 146 to 790 kg/ha. Increases commonly occurred in the percent cover of hairy wild rye (Leymus innovatus (Beal) Pigler) and fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub.). The herbaceous components of mixed shrub-herb communities increased from 336-747 kg/ha to 517-1104 kg/ha in response to burning (P<0.025, Mann-Whitney U-test). Browse biomass (mostly Salix spp. and Betula nana L.) increased >or=220% (P相似文献   

Botswana's environmental policy on recycling

Recycling operations have become one of the primary strategies for waste management, worldwide. Especially, recycling operations are viewed as among the most effective techniques for reducing the amount of municipal solid waste disposed at landfill sites. Botswana's environmental policy on recycling stipulates, among others, that all waste management authorities should provide information on the classification and quantities of controlled waste targeted for recycling. This paper, therefore, examines the extent to which recycling operations in Botswana have either been conducted in compliance with or in violation of some major environmental requirements as enunciated on statutory guidelines. Compatibility between environmental policies on recycling and actual practice is evaluated focusing on two companies (Dumatau trading and Botswana Tissue) involved in recycling operation. Data from the two companies is complemented by one collected from the Gaborone landfill site. Finally, this study discusses on the role played by various stakeholders in policy formulation and implementation with particular emphasis being placed on a select number of non-governmental organisations (NGO).     

Quantifying the impact of regular cutting on vegetative buffer efficacy for nitrogen-15 sequestration

This study used the stable 15N isotope to quantitatively examine the effects of cutting on vegetative buffer uptake of NO3(-)-N based on the theory that regular cutting would increase N demand and sequestration by encouraging new plant growth. During the summer of 2002, 10 buffer plots were established within a flood-irrigated pasture. In 2003, 15N-labeled KNO3 was applied to the pasture area at a rate of 5 kg N ha(-1) and 99.7 atom % 15N. One-half of the buffer plots were trimmed monthly. In the buffers, the cutting effect was not significant in the first few weeks following 15N application, with both the cut and uncut buffers sequestering 15N. Over the irrigation season, however, cut buffers sequestered 2.3 times the 15N of uncut buffers, corresponding to an increase in aboveground biomass following cutting. Cutting and removing vegetation allowed the standing biomass to take advantage of soil 15N as it was released by microbial mineralization. In contrast, the uncut buffers showed very little change in 15N sequestration or biomass, suggesting senescence and a corresponding decrease in N demand. Overall, cutting significantly improved 15N attenuation from both surface and subsurface water. However, the effect was temporally related, and only became significant 21 to 42 d after 15N application. The dominant influence on runoff water quality from irrigated pasture remains irrigation rate, as reducing the rate by 75% relative to the typical rate resulted in a 50% decrease in total runoff losses and a sevenfold decrease in 15N concentration.     

Runoff phosphorus losses from surface-applied biosolids

Runoff losses of dissolved and particulate phosphorus (P) may occur when rainfall interacts with manures and biosolids spread on the soil surface. This study compared P levels in runoff losses from soils amended with several P sources, including 10 different biosolids and dairy manure (untreated and treated with Fe or Al salts). Simulated rainfall (71 mm h(-1)) was applied until 30 min of runoff was collected from soil boxes (100 x 20 x 5 cm) to which the P sources were surfaced applied. Materials were applied to achieve a common plant available nitrogen (PAN) rate of 134 kg PAN ha(-1), resulting in total P loading rates from 122 (dairy manure) to 555 (Syracuse N-Viro biosolids) kg P ha(-1). Two biosolids produced via biological phosphorus removal (BPR) wastewater treatment resulted in the highest total dissolved phosphorus (13-21.5 mg TDP L(-1)) and total phosphorus (18-27.5 mg TP L(-1)) concentrations in runoff, followed by untreated dairy manure that had statistically (p = 0.05) higher TDP (8.5 mg L(-1)) and TP (10.9 mg L(-1)) than seven of the eight other biosolids. The TDP and TP in runoff from six biosolids did not differ significantly from unamended control (0.03 mg TDP L(-1); 0.95 mg TP L(-1)). Highest runoff TDP was associated with P sources low in Al and Fe. Amending dairy manure with Al and Fe salts at 1:1 metal-to-P molar ratio reduced runoff TP to control levels. Runoff TDP and TP were not positively correlated to TP application rate unless modified by a weighting factor reflecting the relative solubility of the P source. This suggests site assessment indices should account for the differential solubility of the applied P source to accurately predict the risk of P loss from the wide variety of biosolids materials routinely land applied.