Uncertainty in establishing forest reference levels and predicting future forest-based carbon stocks for REDD+

Forest reference levels (FRLs) provide a benchmark for assessing reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), and they are central to demonstrate additionality of REDD+. Attaining realistic FRLs, however, is challenging, especially in complex mosaic landscapes. We established FRLs in northern Laos for different reference periods and tested them against actual carbon stock changes. Annual time series of Landsat satellite images were used to capture the subtle changes in carbon stocks in complex landscapes characterized by shifting cultivation. We found that FRLs differ considerably depending on the reference period chosen. Abrupt land-use changes occurred when hybrid maize replaced traditional shifting cultivation and forests, and this invalidated carbon stock trends that would have been predicted had the FRL been projected into the future. We conclude that demonstrating additionality of REDD+ in fast developing areas is difficult and that payment systems rewarding potential emission reductions against hypothetical extrapolation of FRLs are unlikely to be a cost-effective strategy.     

On Governance, Embedding and Marketing: Reflections on the Construction of Alternative Sustainable Food Networks

Based on the reconstruction of the development of 14 food supply chain initiatives in 7 European countries, we developed a conceptual framework that demonstrates that the process of increasing the sustainability of food supply chains is rooted in strategic choices regarding governance, embedding, and marketing and in the coordination of these three dimensions that are inextricably interrelated. The framework also shows that when seeking to further develop an initiative (e.g., through scaling up or product diversification) these interrelations need continuous rebalancing. We argue that the framework can serve different purposes: it can be used as an analytical tool by researchers studying food supply chain dynamics, as a policy tool by policymakers that want to support the development of sustainable food supply chains, and as a reflexive tool by practitioners and their advisors to help them to position themselves, develop a clear strategy, find the right allies, develop their skills, and build the capacities that they need. In this paper, we elaborate upon the latter function of the framework and illustrate this briefly with empirical evidence from three of the initiatives that we studied.     

Out with the garbage: the parasitic strategy of the mantisfly Plega hagenella mass-infesting colonies of the eusocial bee Melipona subnitida in northeastern Brazil

Between April and June of 2012 mantisflies (Plega hagenella) were found to be extensively parasitizing the nests of two groups of managed colonzies of eusocial stingless bees (Melipona subnitida) in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil. The mantisfly larvae developed inside closed brood cells of the bee comb, where each mantispid larva fed on the bee larva or pupa present in a single brood cell. Mature mantispid larvae pupated inside silken cocoons spun in place within their hosts' brood cells then emerged as pharate adults inside the bee colony. Pharate adults were never attacked and killed by host colony workers. Instead, colony workers picked up the pharates and removed them from the nest unharmed, treating them similar to the way that the general refuse is removed from the nest. Adult mantispids subsequently eclosed from their pupal exuviae outside the nest. Manipulative experiments showed that post-eclosion adult mantispids placed back within active bee colonies were quickly attacked and killed. These observations demonstrate that pharate and post-eclosion adults of P. hagenella are perceived differently by colony workers and that delayed adult eclosion is an important functional element in the parasitic life strategy of P. hagenella, allowing adults to escape without injury from the bee colonies they parasitize.     

Intrageneric differences in the four stereoisomers of stenusine in the rove beetle genus, Stenus (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae)

Most species of the rove beetle genus Stenus employ the spreading alkaloid stenusine as an escape mechanism on water surfaces. In the case of danger, they emit stenusine from their pygidial glands, and it propels them over the water very quickly. Stenusine is a chiral molecule with four stereoisomers: (2′R,3R)-, (2′S,3R)-, (2′S,3S)-, and (2′R,3S)-stenusine. The percentile ratio of these four isomers is only known for the most common species of the genus: Stenus comma. With the intention of determining the stereoisomer ratios of five additional species from the two subgenera, Stenus and Hypostenus, we used GC/mass spectrometry measurements with a chiral phase. The results showed that the ratio differs among the genus. These findings can be a basis for chemotaxonomy. It is also possible that the biological function of stenusine, e.g., as antibiotic or fungicide, varies with changing stereoisomer composition.

Enhancing Conservation,Ecosystem Services,and Local Livelihoods through a Wildlife Premium Mechanism

We propose the wildlife premium mechanism as an innovation to conserve endangered large vertebrates. The performance‐based payment scheme would allow stakeholders in lower‐income countries to generate revenue by recovering and maintaining threatened fauna that can also serve as umbrella species (i.e., species whose protection benefits other species with which they co‐occur). There are 3 possible options for applying the premium: option 1, embed premiums in a carbon payment; option 2, link premiums to a related carbon payment, but as independent and legally separate transactions; option 3, link premiums to noncarbon payments for conserving ecosystem services (PES). Each option presents advantages, such as incentive payments to improve livelihoods of rural poor who reside in or near areas harboring umbrella species, and challenges, such as the establishment of a subnational carbon credit scheme. In Kenya, Peru, and Nepal pilot premium projects are now underway or being finalized that largely follow option 1. The Kasigau (Kenya) project is the first voluntary carbon credit project to win approval from the 2 leading groups sanctioning such protocols and has already sold carbon credits totaling over $1.2 million since June 2011. A portion of the earnings is divided among community landowners and projects that support community members and has added over 350 jobs to the local economy. All 3 projects involve extensive community management because they occur on lands where locals hold the title or have a long‐term lease from the government. The monitoring, reporting, and verification required to make premium payments credible to investors include transparent methods for collecting data on key indices by trained community members and verification of their reporting by a biologist. A wildlife premium readiness fund would enable expansion of pilot programs needed to test options beyond those presented here. Mejora de la Conservación, Servicios del Ecosistema y Calidad de Vida Local Mediante un Mecanismo de Compensación de Vida Silvestre     

Haloacetic acids,phytotoxic secondary air pollutants

Haloacetic acids are atmospheric oxidation products of airborne C₂-halocarbons which are important solvents and propellants. Levels of trichloroacetate (TCA) in conifer needles from mountain ranges in Germany (Black Forest, Erzgebirge) and from two sites in Finland are compared; TCA is present in conifer needles at concentrations up to 0.7 μmol/kg, MCA up to 0.2 μmol/kg. At the Finnish sites, TCA-concentrations and branch degeneration symptoms of Scots pine are correlated. Monochloroacetate (MCA) has been determined in needle samples from Southern Germany in concentrations exceeding its phytotoxicity threshold towards photoautotrophic organisms. Data on atmospheric chloroacetate levels in Germany are also given; ambient air levels of chloroacetic acids range from about 2 pmol/m³ (TCA) to 390 pmol/m³ (MCA). TCA and dichloroacetic acid (DCA) arise from atmospheric oxidation of airborne C₂-chlorocarbons, while the source of MCA is not yet known; several tentative pathways are suggested.     

Assessment of Population Dynamics of Specific Strains in Groundwater Bioaugmentation Experiments by Two Different Molecular Techniques

A set of microcosm experiments was performed to understand the behaviour of special degraders in bioaugmentation experiments. In the experiments the following chlorobenzene degraders were used: the genetically modified Pseudomonas putida F1CC, and the two wild-type strains Pseudomonas putida GJ31 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa RHO1. These strains were used at an initial cell density of 10⁵ cells mL^–1 groundwater which had been spiked with 1,2-dichlorobenzene (1,2-DCB), 1,4-dichlorobenzene (1,4-DCB) and, as main contaminant, chlorobenzene (CB). The population dynamics and behaviour of the three special degraders within the groundwater microcosms were studied by single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis of 16S rDNA fragments amplified from directly extracted community DNA and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with species-specific probes. RHO1 disappeared after 4 days as detected by FISH in contrast to SSCP-detection where RHO1 could be found during the whole incubation time. Whereas GEM F1CC and wild-type strain GJ31 survived the whole incubation for 20 days. With both methods we were able to detect all strains with high specificity among the indigenous microbial community. The data sets obtained from SSCP analysis and FISH were highly correlated. Specific band intensity within the SSCPfingerprints and the cell counts determined by FISH gave a quantitative overview about the introduced strains.     

A design and application of a multi-agent system for simulation of multi-actor spatial planning

Multi-agent Systems (MAS) offer a conceptual approach to include multi-actor decision making into models of land use change. The main goal is to explore the use of MAS to simulate spatial scenarios based on modelling multi-actor decision-making within a spatial planning process. We demonstrate MAS that consists of agents representing organizations and interest groups involved in an urban allocation problem during a land use planning process. The multi-actor based decision-making is modelled by generating beliefs and preferences of actors about the location of and relation between spatial objects. This allows each agent to confront these beliefs and preferences with it's own desires and with that of other agents. The MAS loosely resembles belief, desire and intentions architecture. Based on a case study for a hypothetical land use planning situation in a study area in the Netherlands we discuss the potential and limitations of the MAS to build models that enable spatial planners to include the 'actor factor' in their analysis and design of spatial scenarios. In addition, our experiments revealed the need for further research on the representation of spatial objects and reasoning, learning and communication about allocation problems using MAS.