Spatial and temporal patterns of predation on seeds of the surfgrass Phyllospadix torreyi

Spatial and temporal patterns of predation on seeds of the seagrass Phyllospadix torreyi S. Watson were quantified at four sites near Santa Barbara, California, USA. Over a period of four flowering seasons during 1995 to 1998, monthly patterns of seed fall and intensity of seed predation were similar among sites, but were temporally quite variable. Abundance of dispersed seeds varied greatly both among seasons and years. Within any one year, seeds were present in the environment every month, but they peaked in abundance during the fall months following the annual flowering period. Seeds were more abundant during the earlier years of the study. The intensity of predation steadily increased throughout the study period, from a low of ≤10% seeds consumed during 1995 to ∼50% consumption by 1997, and it was not correlated with abundance of seeds in the environment. Pre-dispersal seed loss also was estimated in two flowering seasons by counting the numbers of seeds consumed prior to release from the plant, and was relatively low (<15%). No differences were detected among the four study sites in patterns of pre-dispersal loss. Field surveys were done at two sites to identify potential seed predators. Three of the most abundant species identified in these surveys were tested in the laboratory to determine size-specific patterns of feeding activity and to assess which early life stages of P. torreyi (fruits within spadices, dehisced fruits, seedlings) were most vulnerable to predation. All three of the early life stages were consumed. The crabs Pugettiaproducta (Randall) and Pachygrapsus crassipes Randall were much more voracious predators than the isopod Idotea resecata Stimpson. Received: 8 June 1999 / Accepted: 2 February 2000     

Feeding ecology and evolutionary survival of the living coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae

One concept of evolutionary ecology holds that a living fossil is the result of past evolutionary events, and is adapted to recent selective forces only if they are similar to the selective forces in the past. We describe the present environment of the living coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae Smith, 1939 at Grande Comore, western Indian Ocean and report depth-dependent cave distribution, temperature, salinity and oxygen values which are compared to the fish's distribution and its physiological demands. We studied the activity pattern, feeding behaviour, prey abundance and hunting success to evaluate possible links between environmental conditions, feeding ecology and evolutionary success of this ancient fish. Transmitter tracking experiments indicate nocturnal activity of the piscivorous predator which hunts between approximately 200 m below the surface to 500 m depth. Fish and prey density were measured between 200 and 400 m, both increase with depth. Feeding tracks and feeding strikes of the coelacanth at various depths were simulated with the help of video and laser techniques. Along a 9447 m video transect a total of 31 potential feeding strikes occurred. Assuming 100% hunting success, medium-sized individuals would obtain 122 g and large females 299 g of prey. Estimates of metabolic rates revealed for females 3.7 ml O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ and for males 4.5 ml O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹. Today coelacanths are considered to be a specialist deep-water form and to inhabit, with their ancient morphology, a contemporary environment where they compete with advanced, modern fish. Received: 5 July 1999 / Accepted: 11 November 1999     

Latitudinal variation in the reproductive biology of the burrowing ghost shrimp Callianassa filholi (Decapoda: Thalassinidea)

Population structure and reproductive ecology of the burrowing ghost shrimp Callianassa filholi Milne-Edwards, 1878 were studied in populations along a latitudinal gradient throughout New Zealand during the breeding season. Size-frequency distributions revealed unimodal populations, with predominantly sexually mature shrimp. All populations showed an unbiased sex-ratio, and there appeared to be no significant difference in size (carapace length, CL) between sexes. At the same time, CL and size at maturity differed significantly between populations; however, a general increase in sizes from north to south was not consistent throughout the latitudinal range studied. The timing of the breeding cycle differed significantly between populations, and breeding started earlier in southern populations. Number of embryos (fecundity) increased linearly with female CL at each location, but rates differed significantly between populations. Embryo size was not related to number of embryos, and the former increased significantly with latitude. With the exception of embryo size, observed differences in body size/size at maturity and reproductive timing between C. filholi populations are thought to be determined by food availability rather than temperature. Thus, further study is suggested on these aspects of thalassinid reproductive biology. Received: 17 June 1999 / Accepted: 8 January 2000     

Effects of dissolved ammonium addition and host feeding with Artemia salina on photoacclimation of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata

 Effects of nutrient treatments on photoacclimation of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata (Esper) were studied. Studies on photoacclimation of colonies from different light regimes in the field were evaluated and used to design laboratory experiments. Coral colonies were collected in the Gulf of Eilat (Israel) from January to March 1993. Exterior branches of colonies from different depths (1 to 40 m) displayed different trends in production characteristics at reduced and very low levels of illumination. From 24 ± 3% to 12 ± 2% of incident surface photosynthetic active radiation (PAR_o), zooxanthella population density and chlorophyll a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae increased, a trend seen in the range of light levels optimal for coral growth (90 to 30% PAR_o). The P _max of CO₂ per 10⁶ zooxanthellae decreased, while P _max of CO₂ per 10³ polyps increased, indicating an increase in zooxanthella population density at low light levels. Proliferous zooxanthella frequency (PZF, a measure of zooxanthella division) declined significantly at light levels <18 ± 3% PAR_o. At the lowest levels of illumination (<5% PAR_o), zooxanthella population density decreased, as did the PZF; chl a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae was unchanged. In 28-d experiments, exterior coral branches from the upper surfaces of colonies from 3 m depth (65 ± 4% PAR_o) were incubated in aquaria under bright (80 to 90% PAR_o), reduced (20 to 30% PAR_o), and extremely low (2 to 4% PAR_o) light intensities. At each light intensity, the corals were maintained in three feeding treatments: sea water (SW); ammonium enriched SW (SW + N); SW with Artemia salina nauplii (SW + A). An increase in P _max of CO₂ per 10³ polyps was found in corals acclimated to reduced light (20 to 30% PAR_o) in nutrient-enriched SW, while in SW, where the increase in zooxanthella population density was smaller, it did not occur. Nutrient enrichments (SW + N at 2 to 4% PAR_o and SW + A at 20 to 30% PAR_o) increased zooxanthella population density, but had no effect on chl a+c per 10⁶ zooxanthellae. Acclimation for 14 d to reduced (10 to 20% PAR_o) and extremely low (1 to 3% PAR_o) light intensities shifted ¹⁴C photoassimilation into glycerol and other compounds (probably glycerides), rather than sugars. Both ammonium addition and feeding with Artemia salina nauplii resulted in an increase in photosynthetic assimilation of ¹⁴C into amino acids. We conclude that acclimation to reduced light consists of two processes: an increase in photosynthetic pigments and in zooxanthella population density. Both processes require nitrogen, the increase in zooxanthella population density needing more; this adaptation is therefore limited in nitrogen-poor sea water. Received: 19 June 1998 / Accepted: 13 June 2000     

Impact of a burrowing deposit-feeder, Monoporeia affinis, on viable zooplankton resting eggs in the northern Baltic Sea

We investigated the effect of different densities of the burrowing deposit-feeding amphipod Monoporeia affinis on the potential for recruitment of zooplankton from benthic resting eggs. Hatching of resting eggs was induced in the laboratory on sliced and resuspended 1-cm depth-sections of sediment cores, collected at six stations in an archipelago area of the Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea. The uppermost 5 cm of the sediment was studied. The most common species that hatched was Eurytemora affinis (Copepoda). Individuals from another copepod genus, Acartia, hatched in significant numbers only in the cores from two stations with low amphipod abundance. Cores from stations with high amphipod densities showed a deeper distribution of emerging E. affinis nauplii compared with stations with few amphipods; the oxidised sediment layer was also deeper at high M. affinis densities than at low. Total (0 to 5 cm strata pooled) number of hatched E. affinis nauplii was independent of amphipod density. This indicates that the effect of M. affinis on E. affinis eggs involves deeper burial due to bioturbation, rather than predation. Decreased benthic recruitment of zooplankton at localities with high M. affinis density is suggested, since more deeply positioned eggs are less likely to hatch. When hatching was induced in intact, non-sliced cores from one station, the number of E. affinis nauplii that hatched was on average 43% of the number that hatched in the upper centimetre of the sliced cores from the same station. This fraction (43%), if applied to the other stations, implied a potential for benthic recruitment of up to 80 000 ind m⁻² for E. affinis. Due to its high abundance, M. affinis is likely to greatly reduce benthic recruitment of zooplankton in this system. Received: 17 September 1999 / Accepted: 23 February 2000     

Maternal investment in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): reproductive costs and consequences of raising sons

Maternal investment in offspring is expected to vary according to offspring sex when the reproductive success of the progeny is a function of differential levels of parental expenditure. We conducted a longitudinal investigation of rhesus macaques to determine whether variation in male progeny production, measured with both DNA fingerprinting and short tandem repeat marker typing, could be traced back to patterns of maternal investment. Males weigh significantly more than females at birth, despite an absence of sex differences in gestation length. Size dimorphism increases during infancy, with maternal rank associated with son’s, but not daughter’s, weight at the end of the period of maternal investment. Son’s, but not daughter’s, weight at 1 year of age is significantly correlated with adult weight, and male, but not female, weight accounts for a portion of the variance in reproductive success. Variance in annual offspring output was three- to fourfold higher in males than in females. We suggest that energetic costs of rearing sons could be buffered by fetal delivery of testosterone to the mother, which is aromatized to estrogen and fosters fat accumulation during gestation. We conclude that maternal investment is only slightly greater in sons than in daughters, with mothers endowing sons with extra resources because son, but not daughter, mass has ramifications for offspring sirehood. However, male reproductive tactics supersede maternal investment patterns as fundamental regulators of male fitness. Received: 23 July 1999 / Received in revised form: 23 February 2000 / Accepted: 13 March 2000     

Characteristics that influence male reproductive success on a lek of Lethrinops c.f. parvidens (Teleostei: Cichlidae)

Sexual selection has long been proposed as a mechanism leading to the diverse cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) fauna of Lake Malawi, Africa. Many of the shallow-water, sand-dwelling, bower-building cichlid species are particularly well suited for studies of sexual selection because they participate in leks. Since females in lekking systems appear to acquire only genetic material from their mates, it has been suggested that leks are ideal systems to study female mate choice. The objectives of the investigation were to examine Lethrinops c.f. parvidens male bower characteristics (i.e., bower size and location) as well as other male characteristics (i.e., length, gular color, and duration on the lek) for their influence on male mating success as measured by the number of visits, circles, and eggs laid by females. These measures are nested in that a visit by a female may or may not lead to circling, and circling by a female may or may not lead to egg-laying. We found increased bower height and higher numbers of conspecific neighbors (analogous to shallow-water, near-shore bower positions) to be positively, significantly associated with the number of visits by females. The only significant correlate with the number of circles was visits, and similarly circles was the only significant correlate with the number of eggs laid. The R ² value for the egg-laying regression was quite low (19.8%) compared with visits (54.3%) and circling (78.9%), suggesting that females may be using additional cues, that we failed to measure, when in close proximity to males or simply that a small proportion of the females were ready to spawn. Both indirect selection and direct selection pressure due to egg predation may have influenced female choice on the lek. Received: 10 April 1999 / Received in revised form: 26 July 1999 / Accepted: 18 September 1999     

Aggression and resource sharing among foundresses in the social wasp Polistes dominulus: testing transactional theories of conflict

Tug-of-war models of within-group conflict predict that the frequency of conflict will be positively related to the degree of reproductive sharing within the group; in contrast, a negative relationship supports transactional models, in which reproductive payments among group members limit the degree of within-group selfishness. We tested predictions of the tug-of-war and transactional models by examining cofoundress interactions during the founding (preworker) phase of colony development in 30 naturally nesting colonies of the paper wasp Polistes dominulus. We found that the mean rate of foundress aggression and the mean probability of food sharing were significantly negatively associated, which supports the prediction of the transactional, not the tug-of-war model. Further, cofoundress aggression significantly increased over the founding phase (independently of temperature), while the fraction of aggression initiated by the dominant (alpha) foundress significantly decreased over this period. We show that both of these results are predicted by the transactional model of within-group conflict. Interestingly, the alpha’s rate of aggression was significantly positively temperature dependent, while the beta’s was not. This indicates that the alpha’s aggression level may often be near her physiological maximum, while the beta’s aggression is limi- ted by other factors, contradicting the prediction of the tug-of-war model. Moreover, the alpha’s aggression was significantly positively temperature dependent only in the second half of the founding period, as predicted by the transactional model since this is when there is least reproductive sharing. Finally, our results indicate that the alpha’s level of aggression depends on the resources controlled by the beta. Received: 18 January 2000 / Revised: 19 June 2000 / Accepted: 24 June 2000     

Reproductive success of monogamous and polygynous pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca)

One of the most interesting aspects of the mating system of pied flycatchers is the regular occurrence of polygyny. Here we present data on the reproductive success of polygynously paired pied flycatcher males compared to monogamous males based on paternity analyses through DNA fingerprinting. Males paired with two females suffered a higher loss in reproductive output per female compared to monogamous males due to (1) a greater proportion of unhatched eggs in their broods, (2) greater nestling mortality and (3) a greater probability of being cuckolded. Nevertheless, the number of fledglings was significantly greater for polygynous males. Based on the number of nestlings that returned for subsequent breeding seasons, however, the reproductive success of monogamous and polygynous males did not differ significantly. These data raise the question as to why males attempt polygyny. Received: 16 August 1999 / Received in revised form: 15 March 2000 / Accepted: 18 March 2000     

Sexual selection on mature male parr of masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou): does sneaking behavior favor small body size and less-developed sexual characters?

In many salmonid species, males exhibit morphological dimorphism associated with alternative mating behaviors. ”Precocious males” have a small body size with little or no development of sexual characters and adopt sneaking to gain access to females, while ”migratory males” of large body size and well-developed secondary sexual characters fight. We quantified selection on precocious male parr of masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) under simulated natural conditions to examine the contribution of morphology to sneaking success. In contrast to the prediction that sneaking behavior favors small body size, we detected selection favoring relatively large body size for sneaking success. This selection pressure was caused by the dominance hierarchy within parr and may have been facilitated by indifference of dominant migratory males to parr. Unlike the secondary sexual characters exhibited by migratory male salmon, such as the hooked snout and humped back, no morphological characters other than body size contributed to the reproductive success of masu salmon parr. This non-contribution may have been responsible for the lack of development of sexual characters in precocious males. Received: 15 November 1999 / Accepted: 20 May 2000