Ultrastructure of sperm and spermathecae in Micromaldane spp. (Polychaeta: Capitellida: Maldanidae)

Assessing the possibility that external fertilization has re-evolved requires the study of monophyletic groups that exhibit various reproductive methods. Maldanid polychaetes show a range of reproductive mechanisms, though previous studies of reproduction have hitherto been restricted to larger species with external fertilization. Micromaldane pamelae Rouse and M. nutricula Rouse are small, gonochoristic maldanids that brood directly developing larvae. Both species have sperm with elongate nuclei and an acrosome extending down each side of the anterior end of the nucleus. A true midpiece is absent; two mitochondria extend along the posterior region of the nucleus. Spermatids develop synchronously in large clusters connected by a cytophore. In M. pamelae sperm are released into the water as spermatozeugmata. These are comprised of clusters of sperm with their tails oriented to the centre and the sperm heads facing outwards. Females of M. pamelae and M. nutricula bear pairs of spermathecae ventrally (M. pamelae three pairs, between setigers 10 and 11, 11 and 12 and 12 and 13 and M. nutricula two pairs, between setigers 10 and 11 and setigers 11 and 12). The blind sacs are epidermal invaginations bound closely together. The entrance to each spermatheca may only be 1 to 2 m across with each spermatheca holding several hundred sperm. This represents the first detailed study of spermathecae in the Capitellida. The occurrence and structure of spermathecae and spermatozeugmata in other groups are discussed and compared with Micromaldane spp. Comparisons are made with non-polychaetes with the purpose of discussing functional aspects of reproductive mechanisms in marine metazoans in general. Elongate sperm nuclei are associated with sperm storage and/or large egg size. The lack of an elongate sperm midpiece may be an indicator of having to swim in water but does not contraindicate sperm storage. Spermatozeugmata may serve as an indication of sperm storage and brooding of larvae. Speculations on the phylogenetic significance of these reproductive features are limited by the fact that supposedly modified (i.e., derived) states may reflect functional/structura, constraints of small body size.     

Loch fleet: liming to restore a brown trout fishery

This project has been successful in meeting its objectives in terms of demonstrating that catchment liming techniques can restore acidified waters to conditions suitable for fish populations for relatively long periods. This improvement in conditions has extended to the inlet stream, which provides vital fish spawning and nursery areas, which are difficult to treat effectively be other means in remote locations. The project has also provided an assessment of the effectiveness of differing rates and modes of lime application, which suggest that only quite restricted parts of a catchment require treatment. This not only maximizes the cost-effectiveness of the treatments, but also helps to minimize any side-effects on, for example, moorland vegetation. The biological monitoring programme at Loch Fleet has also provided an assessment of the overall ecological consequences of adding limestone to naturally acidic and calcium-deficient ecosystems.     

Measurement of dry deposition of ammonia on a forest

Ammonia concentration gradients above a Douglas fir canopy were measured from 16 August to 31 December 1989 by two automated high-precision thermodenuders at the location Speulderbos in The Netherlands. Concentration gradients were used to calculate the dry deposition flux of ammonia via flux-gradient theory. Meteorological data were obtained from a nearby tower. Ammonia concentrations were highly variable with highest values during the night. Concentration gradients were very small during daytime and quite large at night. Median values of the calculated deposition flux and deposition velocity were 0.1 microg m(-2) s(-1) and 3.2 cm s(-1) respectively (N=1624).     

The aggregation pheromone ofIps duplicatus and its role in competitive interactions withI. typographus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

Summary Ips duplicatus withI. typographus co-inhabiting Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) would benefit from a pheromone blend distinct from that of the larger competitorI. typographus. GC-MS analysis showed thatI. duplicatus males feeding in the host produced ipsdienol (Id),cis-verbenol (cV),trans-verbenol (tV), myrtenol (Mt), andE-myrcenol (EM) and traces of 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MB).I. duplicatus produced Id in approximately racemic form (48.9-54.5% (+)-(S)-isomer). The amounts of Id and EM released over a 9 day period had a maximum of 250 and 5 ng/h/male, respectively, on day 2. Exposure ofI. duplicatus males to myrcene and -pinene resulted in the production of small amounts of Id, cV, tV, Mt, andtrans-pinocarveol, but not of EM. In laboratory bioassays with walking beetles, the pheromone component Id alone was weakly attractive while EM was inactive, but in binary combination with Id strongly synergized attraction. A combination of EM and Id at a release rate equivalent to 100–200 males was more attractive in the field than 70 unmated males in a spruce log. The addition of myrcene ( a suggested pheromone precursor of Id) to Id did not enhance trap caches, while addition of EM increased catches > 10-fold. Subtracting EM from a blend of Id, EM, cV and MB drastically reduced trap catches while subtraction of cV or MB or both had no significant effect. Addition of EM over a wide concentration range to the synthetic pheromone ofI. typographus did not reduce the attraction of females of this species in the laboratory. A two-species pheromone interaction field test releasingI. typographus pheromone components (MB + cV) at 10–1000 male equivalents (ME) andI. duplicatus pheromone (Id + EM) at 0, 10–1000 ME in all possible combinations showed both positive intraspecific dose-response effects and an interspecific inhibition. Higher release rates of EM appeared to inhibitI. typographus, especially males. In a tree colonization model, the response of the two competing species to their respective pheromones show a good separation during the mass-attack with a small initial cross-attraction. It remains to be shown whether either of the two pheromone systems have in fact evolved in the present sympatry, or if they are an incidental effect of ancestry of these phylogenetically distantIps.     

Ozone in the urban southeastern United States

Ozone measurements (daily maximum values) from the Aerometric Information Retrieval System database are analyzed for selected sites, during 1980 to 1988, in southeastern USA. Frequency distributions, for most sites during most years, show a typical bell-shaped curve with the higher frequency around the yearly daily maximum ozone mean of about 100 to about 110 microg m(-3) (50-55 ppbv). Abnormal years in ozone concentration may skew the distribution as the mean shifts. A correlation of daily maximum ozone concentrations above 140 microg m(-3) (70 ppbv) between sites shows a division between the sites in the northern protion of the region and those in the southern portion of the region. Variations in ozone levels are well correlated over distances of several hundred kilometers, suggesting that high values are associated with synoptic scale episodes. An ozone exposure analysis also shows higher ozone exposures (250-300 ppm days) in the northerly sites as compared to the southerly sites (150-170 ppm days).     

Variation of leaf gland volatile oil within a population of sweet gale (Myrica gale) (Myricaceae)

Summary The leaf gland volatile oils of ten sweet gale plants from a Scottish population were extracted in early summer. The results differed notably from reports of other populations in respect of the sesquiterpenes, -elemenone and germacrone, which were major components of the volatile oil. Three dihydrochalcones were also detected in the volatile oil. Variation within the population existed, particularly with respect to the relative importance of germacrone. Five plants were resampled in late summer and exhibited a marked reduction in -elemenone, a lesser reduction in germacrone and changes in the proportions of some monoterpenes.     

Effects of clearfelling on stream and soil water aluminium chemistry in three UK forests

Data are presented demonstrating how clearfelling has changed soil and stream water aluminium chemistry. For soil waters, a strong empirical relationship was observed between inorganic aluminium (Al(inorg)) and total inorganic anion (TIA) concentrations. Before felling, chloride and sulphate accounted for the largest proportion of the TIA concentration. After felling, in soils where nitrification was active, nitrate became increasingly important. Where this led to an increase in TIA, Al(inorg) concentrations increased. Over five years, nitrate concentrations have fallen, along with TIA, resulting in a sympathetic decline in Al(inorg). Streams draining clearfelled areas initially became more acid, although chloride and sulphate concentrations decreased. Stream water nitrate concentrations increased soon after felling and remained higher than controls for up to four years. While nitrate concentrations were high, Al(inorg) remained unchanged. Subsequently, as nitrate and TIA decreased, Al(inorg) also declined to concentrations below those in the control stream. Clearfelling upland forests will not necessarily result in immediate improvements in water quality, although long-term benefits may be seen before canopy-closure of the next crop.     

Seasonal trend of fog water chemical composition in the Po Valley

Fog frequency in the Po Valley, Northern Italy, can be as high as 30% of the time in the fall-winter season. High pollutant concentrations have been measured in fog water samples collected in this area over the past few years. The combined effects of high fog occurrence and high pollutant loading of the fog droplets can determine, in this area, appreciable chemical deposition rates. An automated station for fog water collection was developed, and deployed at the field station of S. Pietro Capofiume, in the eastern part of the Po Valley for an extended period: from the beginning of November 1989 to the end of April 1990. Time-resolved sampling of fog droplets was carried out during all fog events occurring in this period, and chemical analyses were performed on the collected samples. Statistical information on fog occurrence and fog water chemical composition is reported in this paper, and a tentative seasonal deposition budget is calculated for H+, NH4+, NO3- and SO4(2-) ions. The problems connected with fog droplet sampling in sub-freezing conditions are also addressed in the paper.     

Observations of H2O2 and PAN in a rural atmosphere

Measurements of gaseous H2O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) concentrations in air are given for a site in rural southern England over an approximately 4-year period. In both cases the data show both diurnal and seasonal patterns. Temperature and wind direction had clear influences on the recorded concentrations of both species. There was an indication of increasing H2O2 concentrations with time. The use of a two-dimensional global model confirmed that this would be expected to occur alongside growth in ozone formation. It is suggested that, during photochemical episodes, the sequential build-up of ozone, PAN and H2O2 could be important in influencing the ability of vegetation to resist the effects of aggressive pollutants.     

An introduction to critical loads

The critical loads approach to emission controls of gaseous pollutants is a concept with a short but eventful history. Despite difficulties with definitions and agreed values, its acceptance within the UN-ECE Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution has provided the impetus for developing methods to put critical loads to a practical use-the revision of the UNECE emission protocols for sulphur and nitrogen. Methodologies first focus upon quantifying a pollutant threshold at which harmful effects occur on particular sensitive receptors (usually biological species). This threshold is known as the critical load for deposited pollutants, and as the critical level for gaseous pollutants acting on receptors. To calculate a critical load, biological effects are usually 'translated' to critical chemical values, e.g. harmful effects on fish 'translate' to alkalinity or aluminium concentrations in water; thus, critical load calculations may be based upon the chemistry of a system. Such calculations may be performed using simple, steady-state models, whilst the use of more complex, dynamic models provides an insight into the past and future trends. Maps of critical loads can be drawn using calculated values, and maps of pollutant deposition data will then show geographical areas where critical loads are exceeded. Spatial emission-deposition models can identify sources contributing to areas of excess loads and quantify necessary emission reductions. Optimization procedures applied to such models can derive abatement strategies related to economic costs and critical load effects. The critical load calculations may also be used to underpin the setting of target loads; these are pollutant loads, determined by political agreement, which take account of social, economic and political considerations.