Growth and utilization of internal nitrogen reserves by the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera in a low-nitrogen environment

An adult giant kelp plant (Macrocystis pyrifera), moved from an inshore kelp forest to an offshore, low-nitrogen environment near Santa Catalina Island, California (USA), maintained growth for 2 wk on internal nitrogen reserves. Frond elongation rates decreased significantly during the third week, and plant growth rate (wet wt) dropped from an initial inshore rate of 3.6 to 0.9% d^-1. During this 3 wk period, nitrogen contents and free amino acid concentrations decreased, while mannitol and dry contents increased in frond tissues. After depletion of internal nitrogen reserves, the nitrogen content of lamina and stipe tissues averaged 1.1 and 0.7% dry wt, respectively. The experimental plant was exposed to higher ambient nitrogen concentrations during the last 2 wk. Rates of frond elongation and plant growth increased, but nitrogen content and amino acids in frond tissues remained low. Of the total nitrogen contained in frond tissue of the plant before transplantation, 58% was used to support growth in the absence of significant external nitrogen supply. Amino acids constituted a small proportion of these internal nitrogen reserves. Net movement of nitrogen occurred within large fronds, but not between different frond size classes. The nitrogen content of holdfast tissue remained relatively constant at 2.4% dry wt and accounted for 18 to 29% of the total nitrogen. Holdfast nitrogen was not used to support growth of nitrogen-depleted fronds. In comparison to Laminaria longicruris, which is adapted to long seasonal periods of low nitrogen availability, M. pyrifera has small nitrogen-storage capacity. However, internal reserves of M. pyrifera appear adequate to make nitrogen starvation uncommon in southern California kelp forests.     

Temperature ecotypes near the southern boundary of the kelp Laminaria saccharina

Effects of temperature on survival, growth, and photosynthesis were compared for two USA populations of Laminaria saccharina Lamour. One population was located in New York State, near the southern latitudinal boundary of the species in the western North Atlantic. This southern boundary population was exposed to ambient temperatures 20°C for about 6 wk each summer. The second population was located in Maine, toward the center of the latitudinal range of the species, and was rarely exposed to temperatures>17°C. sporophytes from the New York (NY) population exhibited greater tolerance of high temperature than plants from the Maine (ME) site. Juvenile sporophytes from the two sites had similar rates of survivorship and growth at temperatures below 20°C, but showed different responses at 20°C in laboratory experiments. NY plants survived and grew for 6 wk at 20°C. ME plants showed negative growth during wk 2 and 100% mortality during wk 3. NY and ME plants held in situ at the NY site during June to September, 1985, also exhibited differential survivorship when ambient temperatures exceeded 20°C. Results of photosynthesis and dark respiration measurements on NY and ME plants grown at various temperatures suggested that the high-temperature tolerance of NY plants was attributable to their ability to maintain positive daily net C-fixation at 20°C. The high-temperature tolerance of the NY plants appeared to be due to genetic adaptation and is probably crucial to the persistence of the species near its southern boundary.     

Genetic Variation and the Immune Response in Natural Populations of Pocket Gophers

It is thought that genetic variation can affect the persistence of a population through its influence on disease susceptibility. We assessed genome-wide genetic variation, variation at a locus involved in the immune system, and acceptance or rejection of skin grafts in three natural populations of the pocket gopher ( Thomomys bottae ). Multilocus DNA fingerprints confirmed previous allozyme data, revealing high levels of variation among Hastings Reserve pocket gophers and almost complete within-population identity for individuals from the two Patricks Point populations (Patricks J and Patricks F), although Patricks J animals were dissimilar to animals from Patricks F despite their proximity. Individuals from the high-variation population consistently rejected within-population reciprocal skin grafts, whereas Patricks J and Patricks F individuals accepted within-population grafts. Patricks J and Patricks F individuals were found to be immunocompetent, however, as revealed by the ability of all individuals to reject between-population grafts, including those that previously accepted within-population grafts. A DNA heteroduplex analysis was then used to directly characterize variability at DQα, a locus of the immune system's major histocompatability complex. Both populations low in genetic variation were fixed for unique DQα alleles, whereas observed heterozygosity in the Hastings population was 0.43, ascribable to at least three unique alleles. These data are in accord with previous cheetah skin-graft results and confirm that skin grafts can be used to assess genetic similarity. We suggest that although many animal populations can persist with extremely low levels of genetic variation in the wild, such populations may be at a greater risk of extinction from particular pathogens because of their genetic uniformity.     

Different habitats, different habits? Response to foraging information in the parasitic wasp Venturia canescens

The parasitic wasp, Venturia canescens (Gravenhorst) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), has two reproductive modes, namely, thelytoky or arrhenotoky, and occurs in habitats with highly variable or relatively stable host abundances, respectively. Since information processing is costly, we expected that information indicating resource availability would be mainly used by the thelytokous wasps and less so by the arrhenotokous type. This idea was explored by two different approaches. In a study on patch-time allocation, we used females from ten populations and measured patch-residence times of individuals that visited multiple patches at different encounter rates. In a more detailed approach, thelytokous and arrhenotokous females from a single location were observed continuously while foraging, and all behaviors were recorded. Wasps of both reproductive modes (i.e., both habitat types) used information for the assessment of habitat quality. However, the way that the information was used differed between them. Whereas thelytokous females used foraging information to maximize their efficiency at high patch-encounter rates, arrhenotokous females merely reduced the number of offspring produced without changing patch times. The behavior of the arrhenotokous females should result in a spreading of offspring across the habitat and, thus, reduced sib-mating. The foraging strategy of these wasps might therefore be an adaptation to reduce costs associated with inbreeding.     

Eco-Labeling and ISO 14000: An Analysis of US Regulatory Systems and Issues Concerning Adoption of Type II Standards

/ Current private and public regulatory systems may not provide an optimal degree of regulation for labels bearing environmental information, and established institutions may detract from efforts to provide for better environmental management. The advent of ISO 14000 offers new opportunities for making eco-labeling a meaningful tool to encourage environmental stewardship. While new federal legislation offers the best vehicle to introduce these standards into US law, the slow pace of the legislative process may recommend an alternative system. Multinational and civic-minded firms may be expected to employ private programs to nurture benevolent environmental management practices until more definitive governmental institutions can be put in place.KEY WORDS: Eco-labels; Environmental labeling; International standards; ISO 14000     

The development of first-possession rules in US mining, 1872–1920: theory, evidence, and policy implications

This paper applies a property rights framework to federal mineral lands in the western United States from the enactment of the Mining Law in 1872 until the enactment of the Mineral Leasing Act for fossil fuels in 1920. There are two principal findings. First, the Mining Law appears to have been an effective means for assigning rights to mineral stocks on public lands (at least through 1920). This conclusion is supported by evidence from claim disputes in the West. Second, the impetus for the Mineral Leasing Act did not derive from the different physical characteristics of hardrock minerals and petroleum. The relevance of these conclusions to contemporary mineral policy is also discussed.     

Screening of organic halogens and identification of chlorinated benzoic acids in carbonaceous meteorites

The occurrence of halogenated organic compounds measured as a sum parameter and the evidence of chlorinated benzoic acids in four carbonaceous meteorites (Cold Bokkeveld, Murray, Murchison and Orgueil) from four independent fall events is reported. After AOX (Adsorbable organic halogen) and EOX (Extractable organic halogen) screening to quantify organically bound halogens, chlorinated organic compounds were analyzed by gas chromatography. AOX concentrations varying from 124 to 209 microg Cl/g d.w. were observed in carbonaceous meteorites. Ion chromatographic analysis of the distribution of organically bound halogens performed on the Cold Bokkeveld meteorite revealed that chlorinated and brominated organic compounds were extractable, up to 70%, whereas only trace amounts of organofluorines could be extracted. Chlorinated benzoic acids have been identified in carbonaceous meteorite extracts. Their presence and concentrations raise the question concerning the origin of halogenated, especially chlorinated, organic compounds in primitive planetary matter.     

An integrated assessment of estrogenic contamination and biological effects in the aquatic environment of The Netherlands

An extensive study was carried out in the Netherlands on the occurrence of a number of estrogenic compounds in surface water, sediment, biota, wastewater, rainwater and on the associated effects in fish. Compounds investigated included natural and synthetic hormones, phthalates, alkylphenol(ethoxylate)s and bisphenol-A. The results showed that almost all selected (xeno-)estrogens were present at low concentrations in the aquatic environment. Locally, they were found at higher levels. Hormones and nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s were present in concentrations that are reportedly high enough to cause estrogenic effects in fish. Field surveys did not disclose significant estrogenic effects in male flounder (Platichthys flesus) in the open sea and in Dutch estuaries. Minor to moderate estrogenic effects were observed in bream (Abramis brama) in major inland surface waters such as lowland rivers and a harbor area. The prevalence of feminizing effects in male fish is largest in small regional surface waters that are strongly influenced by sources of potential hormone-disrupting compounds. High concentrations of plasma vitellogenin and an increased prevalence of ovotestes occurred in wild male bream in a small river receiving a considerable load of effluent from a large sewage treatment plant. After employing in vitro and in vivo bioassays, both in situ and in the laboratory, we conclude that in this case hormones (especially 17 alpha-ethynylestradiol) and possibly also nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s are primarily responsible for these effects.