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Ocean acidification is not happening in isolation but against a background of chronic low-level pollution for most coastal marine environments. The reproductive and larval stages of marine invertebrates can be highly sensitive to the impacts of both environmental pollutants and ocean acidification, but very little is currently known regarding the potential impacts of combined contaminant and high CO2 exposures on the health of marine organisms. Ocean acidification research to date has focused heavily on the responses of calcifying marine invertebrate larvae and algae, and as such the polychaetes as a group, despite their ecological importance, remain understudied. Here, we investigate the effects of elevated seawater CO2 (pH range 8.1–7.4, plus an extreme pH of 7.2 in the sperm motility experiments), in combination with the environmental pollutant copper (0.002 μM), on the early life history stages of the intertidal polychaete Pomatoceros lamarckii from two populations. P. lamarckii sperm appear to be robust to elevated seawater CO2. Whilst all three of the sperm motility end points measured showed a response to elevated CO2, these responses were small and not linear. The percentage of motile sperm and sperm curvilinear velocity were significantly reduced in the lower pH treatments of 7.4 and 7.2, whereas sperm straight-line velocity (VSL) was mostly unaffected except for an increased VSL at pH 8.0. Fertilisation success was investigated using two populations from the South West (UK), one from Torquay and one from Plymouth Sound. Fertilisation success was slightly but significantly reduced at the 7.6 and 7.4 pH treatments for both populations (a 9.0 % reduction in fertilisation success from pH 8.1 to 7.4 for Torquay), but with a greater effect observed in the population from Plymouth Sound (a 13.33 % reduction in fertilisation success). No additional impact of 0.002 μM copper exposure on fertilisation success was found. Larval survival was found to be much more sensitive to elevated CO2 than sperm function or fertilisation, and a significant interaction with copper exposure was observed. These results demonstrate the potential for polychaete larvae to be affected by predicted ocean acidification conditions and that chronic coastal pollutants, such as copper, have the potential to alter larval susceptibility to ocean acidification conditions.  相似文献   
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Collective animal behaviour has attracted much attention recently, but cause-and-effect within interaction sequences has often been difficult to establish. To tackle this problem, we constructed a robotic fish (‘Robofish’) with which three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.) interact. Robofish is a computer-controlled replica stickleback that can be programmed to move around a tank. First, we demonstrated the functioning of the method: that the sticklebacks interacted with Robofish. We examined two types of interaction: recruitment and leadership. We found that Robofish could recruit a single fish from a refuge and could initiate a turn in singletons and in groups of ten, i.e. act as a leader. We also showed that the influence of Robofish diminished after the first 30 min that fish spent in a new environment. Second, using this method, we investigated the effects of metric and topological inter-individual distance on the influence that Robofish had on the orientation of fish in a shoal of ten. We found that inter-individual interactions during this turn were predominantly mediated by topological, rather than metric, distance. Finally, we discussed the potential of this novel method and the importance of our findings for the study of collective animal behaviour.  相似文献   
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